The issue
Effects of happiness on physical health: A review of the research literature
Correlational studies
Follow-up studies on effect of health on happiness
Follow-up studies on effect of happiness on health, in particular longevity
Happiness and longevity in sick people
Subjects
|
N
|
Follow-up
|
Measure of happiness
|
Control variables
|
Observed effect
|
Source
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Breast cancer patients | 35 | 1 year | Affect balance scale | None |
Negative
| Derogatis (1979) |
Dead: M = 2.01 | ||||||
Alive: M = 1.27 | ||||||
Difference: p < 05 | ||||||
Inhabitants old age home for veterans | 668 | 2 years | Single question on life satisfaction | Age, baseline health and health behaviour |
Positive
| Kao et al (2005) |
2001–2003 | OR = 1.4 unhappy | |||||
OR = 8.9 very unh. | ||||||
Aged residents nursing home: chronically ill | 193 | 2 years | Life Satisfaction Index (LSI) |
No difference
| Reynolds and Nelson (1981) | |
1977–1978 | ||||||
Aged residents nursing home Massachusetts, USA | 30 | 2.5 years | Six questions about satisfaction with life | Age, baseline health |
Negative:
| Janoff-Bulmanand Marshall (1982) |
Dead: M = 27.2 | ||||||
Alive: M = 21.9 | ||||||
p < .05 | ||||||
Difference: p < .05 | ||||||
21–80 aged heart patients Massachusetts, USA | 3,375 | 3 years | Single question on life satisfaction | Age, baseline functional health and treatment |
No effect
| Konstam et al. (1996) |
RR = 1.052 ns | ||||||
Single question: ladder of life ‘now’ |
Positive
| |||||
RR = .92 p < .002 | ||||||
Early stage melanoma patients Sydney, Australia | 426 | 1–6 years | Single question on mood | Baseline disease variables, coping style and concerns |
Negative
| Brown et al. (2000) |
1991–1997 | HR = 1.02 | |||||
CI95: 1.00–1.03 | ||||||
65–96 aged residents of nursing homes Montreal, Canada | 129 | 4 years | Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) | Age, gender and baseline health (objective and subjective) |
No effect
| O’Connor and Vallerand (1998) |
HR = .79 | ||||||
r = −.08 ns | ||||||
End-stage renal disease patients Calgary, Canada | 97 | 4 years | Affect Balance Scale | Age, co-morbidity, number of leisure activities |
No effect
| Devinds et al. (1990) |
r = +.00 ns | ||||||
Single question on Life happiness |
No effect
| |||||
partial r = −.17 ns | ||||||
Elderly (mean 79) living in institution, Newfoundland, Canada | 156 | 5 years | Happiness (MUNSH) | Age, activity, religiosity, perceived health |
Negative
| Stones, Dorman, and Kozma (1989) |
1.2% explained variance | ||||||
Questions on recent happiness |
Negative
| |||||
2% explained variance | ||||||
Breast cancer patients: with relapse | 36 | 7 years | Positive affect (Joy) | Age, baseline health, prognosis, time before relapse |
Positive
| Levy et al. (1988) |
B = +.20 | ||||||
Spinal cord injured >2 years after accident | 345 | 11 years | General satisfaction factor | Biographic variables |
Positive
| Krause, Lottes, and Sternberg (1997) |
1985–1996 | OR = 1.99 |
Happiness and longevity in healthy populations
Subjects
|
N
|
Follow-up
|
Measure of happiness
|
Control variables
|
Observed effect
|
Source
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
>18 aged Montana, Maryland, USA | 164 | 6–12 months | Questions about happiness | Age, income, gender, employment and marital status |
No effect
| Goldberg et al. (1979) |
1971–1974 | ||||||
>65 aged Mexicans Texas, USA | 2,282 | 2 years | Question about positive affect | Age, income, education, baseline chronic diseases, smoking drinking, BMI |
Positive
| Ostir et al. (2000) |
1993–1994 | OR4 = 2.4 | |||||
>72 aged, poor neighborhoods, Connecticut, USA. | 400 | 2 years | Rating by interviewer | Baseline health (objective and subjective) |
Positive
| Zuckerman et al. (1984) |
1972–74 | OR2 = 1.8 healthy OR2 = 2.4 ill | |||||
>65 aged not institutionalized Nonamura, Japan | 2,274 | 3 years | Single questions about happiness and mood | Age, gender, baseline health (objective and subjective), marital status, economic status, social contacts and activity pattern |
No effect
| Kawamoto and Doi (2002) |
1998–2001 | After control for age, gender, baseline health and activity | |||||
>70 aged (mean 85) Berlin, Germany | 513 | 3–6 years | Positive affect (PANAS) | Age, SES, health (objective and subjective) |
Positive
| Maier and Smith (1999) |
1990/1993–1996 | OR = 1.3 | |||||
Life satisfaction index |
No effect
| |||||
OR = 1.2 ns (also after control for intellectual functioning) | ||||||
>75 aged living in community Tierp, Sweden | 161 | 4 years | Self-report on single question | Baseline health and independence (nurse rating) |
Positive
| Parker et al.(1992) |
1986–1990 | among 75–84 aged OR = 3.0 (CI95 1.3–7.1) | |||||
No effect
| ||||||
among >85 aged | ||||||
>70 aged North Carolina USA, | 147 | 4 years | Question about happiness |
Positive
| Palmore (1969) | |
1955–1959 | r = +.10 | |||||
Rating by interviewer |
No effect
| |||||
r = +.01 | ||||||
>75 aged Helsinki, Finland | 491 | 10 years | Question on life satisfaction | Age, gender, baseline health |
Positive
| Pitkala et al. (2004) |
1985–1995 | OR2 = 1.2 | |||||
>80 aged twins Sweden | 702 | 10 years | Zest subscale LSI-Z | Baseline health (physical functioning, number of serious illnesses), age, education, living alone, frequency of social contacts |
Positive
| Lyyra (2006) |
1991–2001 | OR4 = 1.9 (CI95 1.3–2.8) | |||||
Mood subscale LSI-Z |
Positive
| |||||
OR4 = 1.8 (CI95 1.2–2.7) | ||||||
>65 aged Manitoba, Canada | 3,128 | 6 years | Life Satisfaction Index (LSI) | Age, gender, baseline health (objective), area of residence |
No effect
| Mossey and Shapiro (1989) |
1971–1977 | ||||||
>75 aged, recently widowed, England | 503 | 6 years | Rating by interviewer | Age, gender, use of medicines |
Positive
| Bowling and Charlton (1987) |
1979–1985 | OR3 = 3.4 | |||||
20–90 aged Almeda county, California, USA | 6,928 | 9 years | Questions about mood and life satisfaction | Age, gender, health (objective and subjective), health behaviour |
No effect
| Kaplan and Camacho (1983) |
1965–1974 | ||||||
>15 aged, general population, Germany | 26.401 | 1–19 years(average 8.5) | Question on life satisfaction | Age, gender, marital status, number of children, foreign born, education, employment, house ownership, income, average income in area and baseline health (%disabled and invalid in household) |
Positive
3.1% less chance of dying with one point on 1–10 life-satisfaction (p < .01)2
| Frijters et al. (2005) |
1984–2002 | ||||||
16–64 aged twins Finland | 22.461 | 20 years | Satisfaction index | Marital status, social class, smoking, drinking, physical activity |
Positive
| Koivumaa et al. (2000) |
1975–1995 | OR3 = 2.1 | |||||
No effect among women | ||||||
45–65 aged Heidelberg, Germany | 3,055 | 21 years | Pleasure and Wellbeing Inventory (PWI) | None |
Positive
| Blakeslee and Grossarth-Maticek (2000) |
1973–1994 | OR4 = 19.7 | |||||
>50 aged Ohio, USA | 660 | 23 years | Positive attitude to aging (five items PGCMS) | Age, gender, race, SES, baseline health (functional and subjective), loneliness |
Positive
| Levy et al. (2002) |
1975–1998 | HR = .87 p < . 001 | |||||
Beta = +.25 p < .001 | ||||||
Happy lived 7.5 years longer | ||||||
Positive evaluation of life in retirement (three items) | Attitude to aging (above) |
Positive
| ||||
partial r = +.06 p < .05 | ||||||
>60 aged, North Carolina USA | 270 | 25 years | Six item index | Baseline health |
Positive
| Palmore (1982) |
1955–1981 | r = +.18 | |||||
No effect after control for baseline health | ||||||
>65 aged, Nederland | 2,645 | 28 years | Questions on evaluation of life | Baseline health (objective and subjective), health behaviour, socio-demographic |
Positive
| Deeg and Van Zonneveld (1989) |
1955–1983 | β = +.05 | |||||
Nuns, USA | 678 | >60 years | Content analysis of autobiographies written around age 22. Count of positive words | None |
Positive
| Danner et al. (2001) |
±1925–2000 | OR4 = 4.3 | |||||
Happiest quartile lived 10 years longer |