Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Quantifying landscape pattern and ecosystem service value changes in four rapidly urbanizing hill stations of Southeast Asia

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Landscape Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Context

Hill stations are known for their favorable cool climate and natural environments which generate valuable ecosystem services that benefit the local population, tourists and visitors. However, rapid urbanization threatens the sustainability of these highly valued fragile landscapes.

Objectives

We aim to characterize and quantify the changes in the landscape patterns and ecosystem service values (ESVs) of Baguio (Philippines), Bogor (Indonesia), Dalat (Vietnam), and Pyin Oo Lwin (Myanmar), and discuss their implications to landscape sustainability.

Methods

We used remote sensing imagery to map land-use/cover (2001 and 2014), and spatial metrics and gradient analysis to characterize the changes in landscape pattern. We employed a benefit transfer method to estimate the changes in ESV and human-to-ESV ratio. A land-change model was used to simulate different scenarios of future built-up expansions (2014–2030).

Results

The landscapes of Dalat and Pyin Oo Lwin are becoming more fragmented, while those of Baguio and Bogor are getting more aggregated. Dalat had the highest decrease (absolute change) in ESV and H-ESV ratio, while Bogor had the highest percentage decrease (2001–2014).

Conclusions

Rapid urbanization has been a major factor in the landscape transformation of Baguio, Bogor, Dalat and Pyin Oo Lwin. If the current built-up expansion rate will speed up, the decline in future ESV and H-ESV ratio (2014–2030) will be higher than if the rate will continue or slow down. Unless the concept of landscape sustainability is taken seriously in landscape and urban planning, the respective ‘values’ of these precious hill stations will become less and less.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. ‘Hill station’ is the term used by the British everywhere in the Orient. Americans use ‘mountain resort’ for the hill station and ‘summer resort’ for both the hill station and the seashore establishment (Spencer and Thomas 1948, p. 637).

  2. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and have a decent standard of living. The HDI is the geometric mean of normalized indices for each of the three dimensions. (Source: http://hdr.undp.org).

References

  • Aspinall R (2006) Editorial. J Land Use Sci 1:1–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asri DU, Hidayat B (2005) Current transportation issues in Jakarta and its impacts on environment. Proc East Asia Soc Transp Stud 5:1792–1798

    Google Scholar 

  • Balvanera P, Pfisterer AB, Buchmann N, He JS, Nakashizuka T, Raffaelli D, Schmid B (2006) Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning and services. Ecol Lett 9:1146–1156

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batker D, Swedeen P, Costanza R, de la Torre I, Boumans R, Bagstad K (2008) A new view of the Puget Sound economy: the economic value of nature’s services in the Puget Sound basin. Earth Economics, Tacoma

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloom DE, Canning D, Fink G (2008) Urbanization and the wealth of nations. Science 319:772–775

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brookshire DS, Neill HR (1992) Benefit transfers—conceptual and empirical issues. Water Resour Res 28:651–655

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BTG (Bogor Travel Guide) (2013) Profile of Bogor. PT Metra Digital Media, Bogor

    Google Scholar 

  • Cardinale BJ, Duffy JE, Gonzalez A, Hooper DU, Perrings C, Venail P, Narwani A, Mace GM, Tilman D, Wardle DA, Kinzig AP (2012) Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature 486:59–67

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costanza R, d’Arge R, de Groot R, Farber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Limburg K, Naeem S, O’neill RV, Paruelo J, Raskin RG (1997) The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:253–260

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costanza R, de Groot R, Sutton P, van der Ploeg S, Anderson SJ, Kubiszewski I, Farber S, Turner RK (2014) Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Glob Environ Change 26:152–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costanza R, Wilson M, Troy A, Voinov A, Liu S, D’Agostino J (2006) The value of New Jersey’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Gund Institute for Ecological Economics, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA

  • Crossette B (1999) The great hill stations of Asia. Basic Books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuong VH (2013) Workshop on ‘Green growth-Model for sustainable development of Dalat City’. Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Vietnam

  • Dahiya B (2012) Cities in Asia, 2012: demographics, economics, poverty, environment and governance. Cities 29:S44–S61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahlan EN, Dahlan EN (2011) Urban forest for reducing air pollution in Bogor City. http://endesdahlan.staff.ipb.ac.id/files/2011/04/Bogor-vs-Urban-forest1.pdf. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • de Groot R, Brander L, van der Ploeg S, Costanza R, Bernard F, Braat L, Christie M, Crossman N, Ghermandi A, Hein L, Hussain S (2012) Global estimates of the value of ecosystems and their services in monetary units. Ecosyst Serv 1:50–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dietzel C, Herold M, Hemphill JJ, Clarke KC (2005a) Spatio-temporal dynamics in California’s Central Valley: empirical links to urban theory. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 19:175–195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dietzel C, Oguz H, Hemphill JJ, Clarke KC, Gazulis N (2005b) Diffusion and coalescence of the Houston metropolitan area: evidence supporting a new urban theory. Environ Plan B 32:231–236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DVB (Democratic Voice of Burma) (2015). 16 dead as flooding strikes Sagaing, Mandalay, Shan. http://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/16-dead-flooding-strikes-sagaing-mandalay-shan. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • Eastman JR, Solorzano LA, Van Fossen ME (2005) Transition potential modeling for land-cover change. In: Maguire DJ, Batty M, Goodchild MF (eds) GIS, spatial analysis, and modeling. ESRI Press, Redlands, pp 357–385

    Google Scholar 

  • Elkington J (1997) Cannibals with forks: The triple bottom line of the 21st century business. Capstone, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Estoque RC, Murayama Y (2012) Examining the potential impact of land use/cover changes on the ecosystem services of Baguio city, the Philippines: a scenario-based analysis. Appl Geogr 35:316–326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estoque RC, Murayama Y (2013a) Landscape pattern and ecosystem service value changes: implications for environmental sustainability planning for the rapidly urbanizing summer capital of the Philippines. Landsc Urban Plan 116:60–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estoque RC, Murayama Y (2013b) City profile: Baguio. Cities 30:240–251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estoque RC, Murayama Y (2014) Measuring sustainability based upon various perspectives: a case study of a hill station in Southeast Asia. Ambio 43:943–956

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Estoque RC, Murayama Y (2015a) Classification and change detection of built-up lands from Landsat-7 ETM+ and Landsat-8 OLI/TIRS imageries: a comparative assessment of various spectral indices. Ecol Ind 56:205–217

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estoque RC, Murayama Y (2015b) Intensity and spatial pattern of urban land changes in the megacities of Southeast Asia. Land Use Policy 48:213–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farber S, Costanza R, Childers DL, Erickson J, Gross K, Grove M, Hopkinson CS, Kahn J, Pincetl S, Troy A, Warren P (2006) Linking ecology and economics for ecosystem management. Bioscience 56:121–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer J, Lindenmayer DB (2007) Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 16:265–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FSWG (Food Security Working Group) (2012) 13 Case studies of land confiscation in three townships of Central Myanmar. Land Core Group of Food Security Working Group

  • Grimm NB, Faeth SH, Golubiewski NE, Redman CL, Wu JG, Bai XM, Briggs JM (2008) Global change and the ecology of cities. Science 319:756–760

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutman G, Janetos AC, Justice CO, Moran EF, Mustard JF, Rindfuss RR, Skole D, Turner BL, Cochrane MA (2004) Land change science: observing, monitoring and understanding trajectories of change on the Earth’s surface. Kluwer Academic, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hasibuan HS, Soemardi TP, Koestoer R, Moersidik S (2014) The role of transit oriented development in constructing urban environment sustainability, the case of Jabodetabek, Indonesia. Proc Environ Sci 20:622–631

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HDN (Human Development Network) (2013) 2012/2013 Philippine Human Development Report. HDN-UNDP, Manila

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang Y, Yu B, Zhou J, Hu C, Tan W, Hu Z, Wu J (2013) Toward automatic estimation of urban green volume using airborne LiDAR data and high resolution remote sensing images. Front Earth Sci 7:43–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inagaki T (2008) Hill stations in Asia: a discovery of scenery and environmental change. Glob Environ Res 12:93–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Kibel PS (2002) The earth on trial: environmental law on the international stage. Routledge, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kubiszewski I, Costanza R, Dorji P, Thoennes P, Tshering K (2013) An initial estimate of the value of ecosystem services in Bhutan. Ecosyst Serv 3:11–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li C, Li JX, Wu JG (2013a) Quantifying speed, growth modes, and landscape pattern changes of urbanization: a hierarchical patch dynamics approach. Landscape Ecol 28:1875–1888

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li JX, Li C, Zhu FG, Song CH, Wu JG (2013b) Spatiotemporal pattern of urbanization in Shanghai, China between 1989 and 2005. Landscape Ecol 28:1545–1565

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu S, Costanza R, Troy A, D’Aagostino J, Mates W (2010a) Valuing New Jersey’s ecosystem services and natural capital: a spatially explicit benefit transfer approach. Environ Manag 45:1271–1285

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu X, Li X, Chen Y, Tan Z, Li S, Ai B (2010b) A new landscape index for quantifying urban expansion using multi-temporal remotely sensed data. Landscape Ecol 25:671–682

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locsin J (2013) Baguio air is among the dirtiest in the country. http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/360705/scitech/science/baguio-air-is-among-the-dirtiest-in-the-country. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • Luck M, Wu J (2002) A gradient analysis of urban landscape pattern: a case study from the Phoenix metropolitan region of USA. Landscape Ecol 17:327–329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mas J-F, Kolb M, Paegelow M, Olmedo MTC, Houet T (2014) Inductive pattern-based land use/cover change models: a comparison of four software packages. Environ Model Softw 51:94–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonnell MJ, Hahs AK (2008) The use of gradient analysis studies in advancing our understanding of the ecology of urbanizing landscapes: current status and future directions. Landscape Ecol 23:1143–1155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGarigal K, Cushman SA, Ene E (2012) FRAGSTATS v4: Spatial pattern analysis program for categorical and continuous maps. Computer software program produced by the authors at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html. Accessed 07 Jan 2015

  • MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends: findings of the condition and trends working group. Island Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Min A, Kudo K (2012) New government’s initiatives for industrial development in Myanmar. In: Lim H, Yamada Y (eds) Economic reforms in Myanmar: pathways and prospects. BRC Research Report No. 10, Bangkok Research Center, IDE-JETRO, Bangkok, Thailand, pp 39–84

  • Mitchell MG, Suarez-Castro AF, Martinez-Harms M, Maron M, McAlpine C, Gaston KJ, Johansen K, Rhodes JR (2015) Reframing landscape fragmentation’s effects on ecosystem services. Trends Ecol Evol 30:190–198

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Müller D, Munroe DK (2014) Current and future challenges in land-use science. J Land Use Sci 9:133–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NLD (2013) Climate changes in Da Lat—the result of deforestation. http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/environment/74784/climate-changes-in-da-lat---the-result-of-deforestation.html. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • Olmedo MTC, Pontius RG Jr, Paegelow M, Mas J-F (2015) Comparison of simulation models in terms of quantity and allocation of land change. Environ Model Softw 69:214–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oo TH (2015) Heritage conservation of historic built environment in Pyin Oo Lwin Town, Myanmar. Paper presented during the International conference on Burma/Myanmar studies, Chiang Mai University, Thailand, 24–25 July 2015

  • Opiña R (2013) Mayor says new buildings should include rainwater harvesting. http://baguiomidlandcourier.com.ph/environment.asp?mode=archives/2013/may/5-26-2013/env3.txt. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • Plummer ML (2009) Assessing benefit transfer for the valuation of ecosystem services. Front Ecol Environ 7:38–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poelmans L, Rompaey AV (2009) Detecting and modelling spatial patterns of urban sprawl in highly fragmented areas: a case study in the Flanders-Brussels region. Landsc Urban Plan 93:10–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polonio JM (2015) Bulk water supply seen to solve Baguio’s water woes. http://www.rappler.com/business/industries/208-infrastructure/89336-bulk-supply-solution-baguio-water-woes. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • Pontius RG Jr, Cornell JD, Hall CAS (2001) Modelling the spatial pattern of land-use change with GEOMOD2: application and validation. Agric Ecosyst Environ 85:191–203

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pontius RG Jr, Si K (2014) The total operating characteristic to measure diagnostic ability for multiple thresholds. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 28:570–583

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • RDPA (Regional Development & Planning Agency) (2013) Kota Bogor: Bogor municipality. Bogor, Indonesia

  • Reed RR (1976) City of Pines: the origins of Baguio as a colonial hill station and regional capital. Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley

  • Reed RR (1979) The colonial genesis of hill stations: the genting exception. Geogr Rev 69:463–468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed RR (2000) Constructing highland cities in Southeast Asia: Baguio (Philippines) and Dalat (Vietnam) as scenes of environmental degradation. In: Chifos C, Yabes R (eds) Southeast Asian urban environments: structured and spontaneous. Arizona State University Press, Tempe, pp 183–273

    Google Scholar 

  • Reenberg A (2009) Land system science: handling complex series of natural and socio-economic processes. J Land Use Sci 4:1–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rindfuss RR, Walsh SJ, Turner BL II, Fox J, Mishra V (2004) Developing a science of land change: challenges and methodological issues. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:13976–13981

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rozenstein O, Karnieli A (2011) Comparison of methods for land-use classification incorporating remote sensing and GIS inputs. Appl Geogr 31:533–544

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sangermano F, Eastman JR, Zhu H (2010) Similarity weighted instance-based learning for the generation of transition potentials in land use change modeling. Trans GIS 14:569–580

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seto KC, Fragkias M (2005) Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urban land-use change in four cities of China with time series landscape metrics. Landscape Ecol 20:871–888

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seto KC, Fragkias M, Guneralp B, Reilly MK (2011) A meta-analysis of global urban land expansion. PLoSONE 6:e23777

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sloan S, Pelletier J (2012) How accurately may we project tropical forest-cover change? A validation of a forward-looking baseline for REDD. Glob Environ Change 22:440–453

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer JE, Thomas WL Jr (1948) The hill stations and summer resorts of the Orient. Geogr Rev 38:637–651

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Su C, Htwe NEE (2015) Shady business. http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/lifestyle/14366-shady-business.html. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • Sufa T (2013) Water to become central issue globally: LIPI. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/05/23/water-become-central-issue-globally-lipi.html. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • Suprayogi A, Setijanto H, Wibawan IWT, Satrija F, Surya WD (2008) A view of Bogor climatology related to the emerging anthrax and avian influenza diseases since January 2004 to February 2005: Importance for early warning system. In: Priosoeryanto BP, Tiuria R (eds) Empowering of society through the animal health and production activities with the appreciation to the indigenous knowledge. Kassel University Press, Berlin, pp 139–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Thapa RB, Murayama Y (2009) Urban mapping, accuracy, & image classification: a comparison of multiple approaches in Tsukuba City, Japan. Appl Geogr 29:135–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • TTN (TUOI TRE NEWS) (2015) No more urban flooding, scorching heat in Vietnam in 2035. http://tuoitrenews.vn/city-diary/29553/no-more-urban-flooding-scorching-heat-in-vietnam-in-2035. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • Turner BL II, Lambin EF, Reenberg A (2007) The emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:20666–20671

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG (1989) Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 20:171–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) (2011) Social services for human development: Viet Nam human development report 2011. UNDP, Hanoi

    Google Scholar 

  • Verburg PH, Erb KH, Mertz O, Espindola G (2013) Land system science: between global challenges and local realities. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 5:433–437

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Verburg PH, Kok K, Pontius RG Jr, Veldkamp A (2010) Modeling land-use and land-cover change. In: Lambin EF, Geist HJ (eds) Land-use and land-cover change: local processes and global impacts. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 117–135

    Google Scholar 

  • Vien L, Binh G (2015) Experts blame mushrooming of greenhouses for Da Lat floods. http://www.thanhniennews.com/society/experts-blame-mushrooming-of-greenhouses-for-da-lat-floods-46178.html. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • VNS (Viet Nam News) (2012) Huge expansion plan for Da Lat City. http://vietnamnews.vn/society/230694/huge-expansion-plan-for-da-lat-city.html. Accessed 28 Dec 2015

  • Weisert K (2013) Water quality in Da Lat, Vietnam. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_Nj9jhncQc. Accessed 29 Oct 2015

  • Wilson MA, Hoehn JP (2006) Valuing environmental goods and services us ing benefit transfer: the state-of-the art and science. Ecol Econ 60:335–342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winston E, de Laak JO, Marsh T, Lempke H, Aung O, Nyunt T, Keith Chapman K (2005) Arabica coffee manual for Myanmar. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu J (2009) Ecological dynamics in fragmented landscape. In: Levin S (ed) Princeton guide to ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp 438–444

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu J (2010) Urban sustainability: an inevitable goal of landscape research. Landscape Ecol 25:1–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J (2013) Landscape sustainability science: ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes. Landscape Ecol 28:999–1023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Jenerette GD, Buyantuyev A, Redman CL (2011) Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urbanization: the case of the two fastest growing metropolitan regions in the United States. Ecol Complex 8:1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaw M, Kudo T (2011) A study on economic corridors and industrial zones, ports and metropolitan and alternative roads in Myanmar. In: Shida M (ed) Intra- and inter-city connectivity in the Mekong region. BRC Research Report No. 6, Bangkok Research Center, IDE-JETR

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (Postdoctoral Fellowship Grant: ID No. P 13001; and Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research B: No. 26284129, 2014-16, Representative: Yuji Murayama). The comments and suggestions of the anonymous reviewers are gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba City, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan

    Ronald C. Estoque & Yuji Murayama

Authors
  1. Ronald C. Estoque
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yuji Murayama
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ronald C. Estoque.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 364 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Estoque, R.C., Murayama, Y. Quantifying landscape pattern and ecosystem service value changes in four rapidly urbanizing hill stations of Southeast Asia. Landscape Ecol 31, 1481–1507 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-016-0341-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-016-0341-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation