Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Extending self-regulated learning to include self-regulated emotion strategies

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Motivation and Emotion Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Emotions and their regulation were examined in favorite and least favorite academic courses. Building on prior research, three forms of regulation (suppression, reappraisal, and rumination) were examined. Reappraisal was positively related to positive emotions across contexts and negatively related to negative emotions in favorite courses. Rumination was positively related with negative emotions in both contexts and negatively related to positive emotions in least favorite courses. Surprisingly, suppression was negatively related to activated positive emotions (excitement) in favorite courses, but positively related to positive deactivated emotions (relaxation) in least favorite courses. Person-centered analyses using latent classes revealed that in favorite courses, the use of rumination was critical in differentiating regulatory profiles. In contrast, reappraisal distinguished among the regulatory profiles in least favorite courses. Results suggest that self-regulated emotion strategies are differentially employed based on course preference and highlight the potential utility in considering self-regulated emotion strategies as part of self-regulated learning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. While emotion regulation can occur as a result of social relationships (e.g., social sharing and coregulation), the current study aimed at integrating emotion regulation within the self-regulated learning framewok, which focuses on self-enacted or internal regulation during learning.

References

  • Ahmed, W., van der Werf, G., Kuyper, H., & Minnaert, A. (2012). Emotions, self-regulated learning, and achievement in mathematics: A growth curve analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advanced online publication. doi:10.1037/a0030160.

  • Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 217–237. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, R. S. J., Corbett, A. T., Roll, I., & Koedinger, K. R. (2008). Developing a generalizable detector of when students game the system. User Model User-Adapted Interaction, 18, 287–314. doi:10.1007/s11257-007-9045-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, R. S. J., D’Mello, S. K., Rodrigoc, M. T., & Graesser, A. C. (2010). Better to be frustrated than bored: The incidence, persistence, and impact of learners’ cognitive—affective states during interactions with three different computer-based learning environments. International Journal Human-Computer Studies, 68, 223–241. doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2009.12.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Eliyahu, A., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2011). Achievement goal orientations, emotions, and engagement: A focus on the varying role of emotions in favorite and least-favorite classes. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Education Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

  • Boekaerts, M. (2007). Understanding students’ affective processes in the classroom. In P. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. 37–56). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Boekaerts, M., Pintrich, P. R., & Zeidner, M. (2000). Handbook of self-regulation. San Diego, CA, US: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., Erickson, E. A., & Gross, J. J. (2003). The social consequences of expressive suppression. Emotion, 3, 48–67. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control-process view. Psychological Review, 97, 19–35. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, N. L., & Miller, L. C. (1994). Self-disclosure and liking: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 457–475.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curci, A., & Rimé, B. (2012). The temporal evolution of social sharing of emotions and its consequences on emotional recovery: A longitudinal study. Emotion. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/a0028651.

  • D’Mello, S., & Graesser, A. (2012). Dynamics of affective states during complex learning. Learning and Instruction, 22, 145–157. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, H. A., DiStefanou, C., & Schutz, P. A. (2008). Identifying patterns of appraising tests in first-year college students: Implications for anxiety and emotion regulation during test taking. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 942–960. doi:10.1037/a0013096.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dettmers, S., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Goetz, T., Frenzel, A., & Pekrun, R. (2011). Students’ emotions during homework in mathematics: Testing a theoretical model of antecedents and achievement outcomes. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36, 25–35. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Efklides, A. (2011). Interactions of metacognition with motivation and affect in self-regulated learning: The MASRL model. Educational Psychologist, 46, 6–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300–319. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frymier, A. B. (1994). The use of affinity-seeking in producing liking and learning in the classroom. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 22, 87–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goetz, T., Frenzel, A. C., Lüdtke, O., & Hall, N. C. (2011). Between-domain relations of academic emotions: Does having the same instructor make a difference? The Journal of Experimental Education, 79, 84–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goetz, T., Nett, U. E., Martiny, S. E., Hall, N. C., Pekrun, R., Dettmers, S., et al. (2012). Students’ emotions during homework: Structures, self-concept antecedents, and achievement outcomes. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 225–234. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.04.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, R. A. (1996). Impact of ingratiation on judgments of evaluations: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 54–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 224–237. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J. (1999). Emotion and emotion regulation. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 525–552). New York, NY, US: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion and emotion regulation: Personality processes and individual differences. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 701–722). New York, NY, US: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348–362. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. A., Epstein, A. M., DeCiantis, M. L., & McNeil, B. J. (1993). Physicians’ liking for their patients: More evidence for the role of affect in medical care. Health Psychology, 12, 140–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hembree, R. (1988). Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Review of Educational Research, 58, 47–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 76, 1301–1334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koole, S. L., & Kuhl, J. (2007). Dealing with unwanted feelings: The role of affect regulation in volitional action control. In J. Shah & W. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (pp. 295–307). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linnenbrink, E. A. (2005). The dilemma of performance-approach goals: The use of multiple goal contexts to promote students’ motivation and learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 197–213. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linnenbrink, E. A. (2007). The role of affect in student learning: A multi-dimensional approach to considering the interaction of affect, motivation, and engagement. In P. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. 107–124). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., Rogat, T. K., & Koskey, K. L. K. (2011). Affect and engagement during small group instruction. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36, 13–24. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.09.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1993). Self-Perpetuating properties of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 339–349. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson, D. (2003). The person approach: Concepts, measurement models, and research strategy. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 101, 3–23. doi:10.1002/cd.79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, S. B., & DeShon, R. P. (2002). Combining effect size estimates in meta-analysis with repeated measures and independent-groups designs. Psychological Methods, 7, 105–125. doi:10.1037//1082-989X.7.1.105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Lost Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Aldao, A. (2011). Gender and age differences in emotion regulation strategies and their relationship to depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 704–708.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 20–28. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 535–569. doi:10.1080/10705510701575396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18, 315–341. doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2009). Achievement goals and achievement emotions: Testing a model of their joint relations with academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 115–135. doi:10.1037/a0013383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Frenzel, A. C., Barchfeld, P., & Perry, R. P. (2011). Measuring emotions in students’ learning and performance: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ). Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36, 36–48. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of quantitative and qualitative research. Educational Psychologist, 37, 91–106. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3702_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2012). Academic emotions and student engagement. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), The handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 259–292). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 667–686.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college students. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 385–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, J. M., & Gross, J. J. (2000). Emotion regulation and memory: The cognitive costs of keeping one’s cool. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 410–424. doi:10.1037/70022-3514.79.3.410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schutz, P. A., Hong, J. Y., Cross, D. I., & Osbon, J. N. (2006). Reflections on investigating emotion in educational activity settings. Educational Psychology Review, 18, 343–360. doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9030-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247–259. doi:10.1023/A:1023910315561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wentzel, K. R., Weinberger, D. A., Ford, M. E., & Feldman, S. S. (1990). Academic achievement in preadolescence: The role of motivational, affective, and self-regulatory processes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 11, 179–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winne, P. H., & Hadwin, A. F. (1996). Studying as self-regulated learning. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 277–304). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

  • Winne, P. H., & Hadwin, A. F. (1998). Studying as self-regulated learning. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 277–304). Mahwah, NJ US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yik, M., Russell, J. A., & Steiger, J. H. (2011). A 12-point circumplex structure of core affect. Emotion, 11, 705–731. doi:10.1037/a0023980.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeidner, M. (2007). Test anxiety in educational contexts: Concepts, findings, and future directions. In P. A. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. 165–184). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). San Diego, CA US: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45, 166–183. doi:10.3102/000283120731290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, 247 Soc Psych Bldg., PO Box 90086, Durham, NC, 27708-0086, USA

    Adar Ben-Eliyahu & Lisa Linnenbrink-Garcia

Authors
  1. Adar Ben-Eliyahu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lisa Linnenbrink-Garcia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Adar Ben-Eliyahu.

Appendix

Appendix

Items for each scale

Reappraisal (adapted from Gross and John 2003):

When I study or work on tasks related to my (least) favorite class…

  1. 1.

    when I want to feel more positive emotion, I change the way I’m thinking about the situation.

  2. 2.

    when I’m faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a way that helps me stay calm.

  3. 3.

    I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I’m in.

  4. 4.

    when I want to feel less negative emotion, I change the way I’m thinking about the situation.

  5. 5.

    when I want to feel more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change what I’m thinking about.

  6. 6.

    when I want to feel less negative emotion (such as sadness or anger), I change what I’m thinking about.

Suppression (adapted from Gross and John 2003):

When I study or work on tasks related to my (least) favorite class…

  1. 1.

    I control my emotions by not expressing them.

  2. 2.

    When I am feeling negative emotions, I make sure not to express them.

  3. 3.

    I keep my emotions to myself.

Rumination (adapted from Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1993):

  1. 1.

    I think “I won’t be able to get my work done in my (least) favorite class if I don’t snap out of this”

  2. 2.

    I think “Why can’t I get going?” to complete work for my (least) favorite class.

  3. 3.

    I think “Why do I always react this way?” about tasks in my (least) favorite class.

  4. 4.

    I think about a task in my (least) favorite class, wishing it had gone better.

  5. 5.

    I think “I won’t be able to concentrate if I keep feeling this way about my (least) favorite class.”

  6. 6.

    I think “Why can’t I handle things better in my (least) favorite class?”

  7. 7.

    I think about all my shortcomings, failings, faults, mistakes related to my (least) favorite class.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ben-Eliyahu, A., Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. Extending self-regulated learning to include self-regulated emotion strategies. Motiv Emot 37, 558–573 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9332-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9332-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation