Skip to main content
Log in

Free choice, modals, and imperatives

  • Published:
Natural Language Semantics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The article proposes an analysis of imperatives and possibility and necessity statements that (i) explains their differences with respect to the licensing of free choice any and (ii) accounts for the related phenomena of free choice disjunction in imperatives, permissions, and statements. Any and or are analyzed as operators introducing sets of alternative propositions. Free choice licensing operators are treated as quantifiers over these sets. In this way their interpretation can be sensitive to the alternatives any and or introduce in their scope.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aloni, M. (2003a). Free choice in modal contexts. In M. Weisgerber (Ed.), Proceedings of “SuB 7—Sinn und Bedeutung” (pp. 25–37). University of Konstanz.

  • Aloni, M. (2003b). On choice-offering imperatives. In P. Dekker & R. van Rooy (Eds.), Proceedings of the 14th Amsterdam Colloquium (pp. 57–72). ILLC–University of Amsterdam.

  • Aloni, M. (2006a). Expressing ignorance or indifference. Modal implicatures in BiOT. To appear in B. ten Cate & H. Zeevat (Eds.), Proceedings of the sixth international Tbilisi symposium on language, logic and computation (LNCS). Berlin: Springer.

  • Aloni, M. (2006b). Free choice and exhaustification: An account of subtrigging effects. Talk presented at Sinn und Bedeutung 11, September 22, 2006, Barcelona, Spain.

  • Aloni, M., & van Rooij, R. (2002). The dynamics of questions and focus. In B. Jackson (Ed.), Proceedings of SALT 12. Ithaca, N.Y.: CLC Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aloni, M., & van Rooij, R. (2007). Free choice items and alternatives. In G. Bouma, I. Krämer, & J. Zwarts (Eds.), Cognitive foundations of interpretation (pp. 5–25). Amsterdam: Edita KNAW.

  • Alonso-Ovalle, L. (2005). Distributing the disjuncts over the modal space. In L. Bateman & C. Ussery (Eds.), Proceedings of the North East Linguistics Society 35. Amherst, Mass.: GLSA.

  • Alonso-Ovalle, L. (2006). Disjunction in alternative semantics. PhD dissertation, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

  • Åquist L. (1965). Choice-offering and alternative-presenting disjunctive commands. Analysis 25: 182–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brennan, G. (1993). Root and epistemic modal auxiliary verbs. PhD dissertation, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

  • Butler, A. (2003). Predicate logic with barriers and its locality effects. In M. Weisgerber (Ed.), Proceedings of “SuB 7—Sinn und Bedeutung” (pp. 70–80). University of Konstanz.

  • Chierchia, G. (1995). Individual-level predicates as inherent generics. In G.N. Carlson & F.J. Pelletier (Eds.), The generic book (pp. 176–223). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chierchia, G. (2004). Scalar implicatures, polarity phenomena and the syntax/pragmatics inter- face. In A. Belletti (Ed.), Structures and beyond. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dayal V. (1998). Any as inherently modal. Linguistics and Philosophy 21: 433–476

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dekker, P. (1993). Transsentential meditations. Ups and downs in dynamic semantics. PhD dissertation, University of Amsterdam.

  • Dekker P. (2002) Meaning and use of indefinite expressions. Journal of Logic, Language and Information 11: 141–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farkas, D. (2002). Varieties of indefinites. In B. Jackson (Ed.), Proceedings of SALT 12. Ithaca, N.Y.: CLC Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fine K. (1970) Propositional quantifiers in modal logic. Theoria 36: 336–346

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Fintel K., Iatridou S. (2003) Epistemic containment. Linguistic Inquiry 34(2): 173–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, D. (2006). Free choice disjunction and the theory of scalar implicatures. Available at http://mit.edu/linguistics/www/fox/free_choice.pdf

  • Gazdar G. (1979) Pragmatics. Implicature, presupposition, and logical form. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Geurts B. (2005) Entertaining alternatives: Disjunctions as modals. Natural Language Semantics 13(4): 383–410

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giannakidou A. (2001) The meaning of free choice. Linguistics and Philosophy 24: 659–735

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grice P. (1989) Studies in the way of words. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass

    Google Scholar 

  • Groenendijk, J., & Stokhof, M. (1984). Studies on the semantics of questions and the pragmatics of answers. PhD dissertation, University of Amsterdam.

  • Hamblin C.L. (1973). Questions in Montague English. Foundation of Language 10: 41–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamblin C.L. (1987). Imperatives. Oxford, Basil Blackwell

    Google Scholar 

  • Haspelmath M. (2000). Indefinite pronouns. Oxford, Oxford University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Heim, I. (1982). The semantics of definite and indefinite noun phrases. PhD dissertation, University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Published in 1989 by Garland, New York.

  • Horn, L. (1972). On the semantic properties of logical operators in English. PhD dissertation, UCLA.

  • Kadmon N., Landman F. (1993). Any. Linguistics and Philosophy 16: 353–422

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamp H. (1973). Free choice permission. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 74: 57–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karttunen L. (1977). Syntax and semantics of questions. Linguistics and Philosophy 1: 3–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kratzer A. (1977). What ‘must’ and ‘can’ must and can mean. Linguistics and Philosophy 1: 337–355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kratzer, A. (1995). Stage-level and individual-level predicates. In G.N. Carlson & F.J. Pelletier (Eds.), The generic book (pp. 125–175). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kratzer, A., & Shimoyama, J. (2002). Indeterminate pronouns: The view from Japanese. In Y. Otsu (Ed.), The proceedings of the third Tokyo conference on psycholinguistics (pp. 1–25). Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mastop, R. (2005). What can you do? Imperative mood in semantic theory. PhD dissertation, University of Amsterdam.

  • Menéndez-Benito, P. (2005). The grammar of choice. PhD dissertation, University of Massachusetts at Amherst. To be published by GLSA, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

  • Portner, P. (2004). The semantics of imperatives within a theory of clause types. In K. Watanabe & R. B. Young (Eds.), Proceedings of semantics and linguistic theory 14. Ithaca, N.Y.: CLC Publications.

  • Rescher N., Robison J. (1964). Can one infer commands from commands. Analysis 24: 176–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rooth M. (1992). A theory of focus interpretation. Natural Language Semantics 1: 75–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross A. (1941). Imperatives and logic. Theoria 7: 53–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, K. (2003). You may read it now or later. A case study on the paradox of free choice permission. Master’s thesis, University of Amsterdam.

  • Schwager, M. (2005). Interpreting Imperatives. PhD dissertation, Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt am Main.

  • Simons M. (2005). Dividing things up: The semantics of or and the modal/or interaction. Natural Language Semantics 13(3): 271–316

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Stechow A. (1990) Focusing and backgrounding operators. In: Abraham W. (eds). Discourse particles 6. John Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 37–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Szabolcsi A. (2004). Positive polarity – negative polarity. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 22(2): 409–452

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westerståhl D. (1984). Determiners and context sets. In: van Benthem J., ter Meulen A. (eds). Generalized quantifiers in natural language. Dordrecht, Foris, pp. 45–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann E. (2000). Free choice disjunction and epistemic possibility. Natural Language Semantics 8: 255–290

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maria Aloni.

Additional information

Part of this material has been presented at the conference Sinn und Bedeutung 7 in 2002 (Aloni 2003a) and the Fourteenth Amsterdam Colloquium in 2003 (Aloni 2003b). Special thanks to Katrin Schulz, Paul Dekker, Balder ten Cate and Alastair Butler for their insightful comments on previous versions of this article. I would also like to thank two anonymous reviewers for detailed written comments. The research reported here was financially supported Organization for Scientific Research (NWO).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Aloni, M. Free choice, modals, and imperatives. Nat Lang Semantics 15, 65–94 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11050-007-9010-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11050-007-9010-2

Keywords

Navigation