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Neurochemical Consequences of Dysphoric State During Amphetamine Withdrawal in Animal Models: A Review

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Abstract

Chronic abuse of amphetamines, such as d-amphetamine (AMPH) and d-methamphetamine, results in psychological dependence, a condition in which the drug produces a feeling of satisfaction and a drive that requires periodic or continuous administration of the drug to produce overwhelming pleasure or to avoid discomfort such as dysphoria. The dysphoric state of AMPH withdrawal has been recognized as depressive syndromes, such as anhedonia, depression, anxiety, and social inhibition, in early drug abstinence. Medication for treatment of the dysphoric state is important for AMPH abusers to avoid impulsive self-injurious behavior or acts that are committed with unconscious or uncontrolled suicidal ideation. However, successful treatments for AMPH withdrawal remain elusive, since the exact molecular basis of the expression of dysphoria has not been fully elucidated. This review focuses on the molecular aspects of AMPH withdrawal as indexed by neurochemical parameters under a variety of injection regimens (for example, levels of brain monoamines and their metabolites, and γ-aminobutyric acid, expression of genes and proteins involved in neuronal activity, and monoamine metabolism and availability) in rodent models which exhibit significant phenotypic features relevant to the syndromes of AMPH withdrawal in humans.

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Acknowledgments

N. K. was supported, in part, by a Grant-in-Aid for Researchers, Hyogo College of Medicine. The authors thank anonymous reviewers for their very helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.

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  1. Department of Pharmacology, Hyogo College of Medicine, 1-1 Mukogawa-cho, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, 663-8501, Japan

    Junichi Kitanaka, Nobue Kitanaka & Motohiko Takemura

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  1. Junichi Kitanaka
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Correspondence to Junichi Kitanaka.

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Kitanaka, J., Kitanaka, N. & Takemura, M. Neurochemical Consequences of Dysphoric State During Amphetamine Withdrawal in Animal Models: A Review. Neurochem Res 33, 204–219 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-007-9409-7

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