Introduction
State of the art
Process and context of decision-making
Discrete choice models
Hybrid choice models
Methodology
Modeling framework
Specification of the model
Structural model
Measurement model
Model application
Survey design
-
the transport mode that teenagers used for their trip to school;
-
the built environment characteristics of the route between home and school;
-
the attitudes of teenagers towards walking;
-
the attitudes of teenagers towards their parents walking behavior; and
-
the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of teenagers and teenagers’ household members.
Case study: sample
Percentage (%) | |
---|---|
Teenagers (decision maker)
| |
Gender | |
Female | 55 |
Male | 45 |
Age | |
11–14 years old | 42 |
15–18 years old | 58 |
Lived abroad | |
Yes | 14 |
No | 86 |
Mode to school (dependent variable) | |
Active transport | 16 |
Bus (public transport) | 35 |
Private vehicle (escorted by parents) | 49 |
Parents (social environment)
| |
Educational level of father | |
Low (secondary education) | 64 |
Medium (university) | 25 |
High (masters & PhD) | 11 |
Educational level of mother | |
Low | 60 |
Medium | 29 |
High | 11 |
Household’s characteristics
| |
Income (euros per month) | |
Less than 2000€ | 25 |
2001€ to 4000€ | 27 |
More than 4000€ | 20 |
Not available | 28 |
Driving license | |
One of the parents holds a driving license | 23 |
Both parents hold a driving license | 77 |
Car ownership | 2.6 |
Household size | 4.8 |
Built environment characteristics for the route home-school
| |
Aesthetics: existence of green (trees and flowers) | 38 |
Existence of cross walks | 67 |
Sidewalks | 55 |
Distance traveled on foot | Max = 2.1 km, Min = 0.002 km, Mean = 0.75 km |
Distance traveled by bus | Max = 34.6 km, Min = 1.1 km, Mean = 11.3 km |
Distance traveled by private motorized vehicle | Max = 24.1 km, Min = 0.02 km, Mean = 3.8 km |
Mean | SD | ||
---|---|---|---|
Indicators of walking-lover | |||
I
WL1
| I am willing to walk to school, in order to be fit | 4.2 | 2.280 |
I
WL2
| I am willing to walk to school, as it is the most cost-effective mode | 3.8 | 2.154 |
I
WL3
| I am willing to walk, in order to protect the environment | 4.3 | 2.002 |
I
WL4
| I consciously make an effort to walk instead of being escorted | 4.6 | 2.001 |
I
WL5
| I prefer walking rather than being escorted for my short-distance trips | 3.8 | 2.192 |
I
WL6
| I really enjoy walking | 3.9 | 2.183 |
I
WL7
| I am not willing to walk to school, because it is time consuming | 4.0 | 2.233 |
I
WL8
| I am not willing to walk to school alone | 3.7 | 2.178 |
Indicators of anticipated “parents: walking-lovers” | |||
SI
PWL1
| My mother walks for her short-distance trips | 4.0 | 1.868 |
SI
PWL2
| My mother prefers walking than using the car | 2.5 | 2.020 |
SI
PWL3
| My father walks for his short-distance trips | 3.2 | 2.039 |
SI
PWL4
| My father prefers walking than using the car | 2.4 | 2.020 |
Model specification
Structural model
Measurement model
Model estimation results
Mode choice model
Base model | HCM | HCM with social interaction | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coef. | t stat | Coef. | t stat | Coef. | t stat | |
β
BUS
| 1.07 | 5.53 | 3.72 | 14.94 | 3.75 | 15.04 |
β
CAR
| 2.47 | 12.27 | 5.18 | 20.21 | 5.21 | 20.30 |
Variables specific to WALK
| ||||||
Female | −0.30 | −3.51 | −0.28 | −2.94 | −0.28 | −2.98 |
Distance between home and school: less than 2.0 km | 3.53 | 20.46 | 3.67 | 20.34 | 3.67 | 20.34 |
Age 11–14 years old | −0.19 | −2.27 | −0.41 | −4.36 | −0.41 | −4.40 |
Income (continuous) | −0.09 | −1.97 | −0.43 | −1.98 | −0.43 | −1.97 |
Existence of green (trees/flowers) | 0.434 | 5.35 | 0.42 | 4.78 | 0.42 | 4.72 |
No crosswalks at least at the 1/2 of the route between home and school | −0.60 | −7.86 | −0.65 | −7.68 | −0.65 | −7.62 |
Wide sidewalks at least at the 1/2 of the route between home and school | 0.29 | 4.04 | 0.27 | 3.39 | 0.27 | 3.41 |
Walking-lover (latent variable) | – | – | 0.58 | 20.67 | 0.89 | 23.94 |
Variables specific to BUS
| ||||||
Distance between home and school: more than 5.0 km | 5.19 | 10.83 | 5.12 | 10.64 | 5.12 | 10.64 |
Variables specific to CAR
| ||||||
Female | 0.11 | 1.97 | 0.098 | 1.98 | 0.098 | 1.98 |
Age 11 to 14 years old | 0.25 | 4.29 | 0.25 | 4.26 | 0.33 | 8.94 |
Distance between home and school: 2.0 to 5.0 km | 1.97 | 4.12 | 1.91 | 3.97 | 1.91 | 3.97 |
Income (continuous) | 0.04 | 4.38 | 0.04 | 4.21 | 0.04 | 4.22 |
Number of private vehicles in the household/Household size (continuous) | 1.18 | 12.24 | 1.08 | 10.97 | 1.08 | 10.96 |
Structural and measurement latent variable model estimation results
HCM | HCM with social interaction | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coef. | t stat | Coef. | t stat | |
Structural model
| ||||
Decision maker/teenager—walking-lover | ||||
θ
WL
| 4.00 | 114.85 | 1.80 | 9.48 |
Female | −2.35 | −6.35 | −0.13 | −3.69 |
Age 11–14 years old | −0.28 | −7.57 | −0.33 | −8.94 |
Abroad | 0.64 | 4.23 | 0.63 | 4.56 |
Income | −0.32 | −3.95 | −0.33 | −3.98 |
PWL | – | – | 0.58 | 11.72 |
σ
WL
| 1.68 | 78.10 | 1.66 | 77.36 |
Social environment—parents: walking-lovers | ||||
ζPWL
| – | – | 3.58 | 119.34 |
Number of private vehicles in the household/number of persons with driving license in the household | – | – | 0.024 | 4.70 |
Income | – | – | −0.15 | −1.96 |
Both parents high educational level | – | – | 0.04 | 4.06 |
Both parents low educational level | – | – | −0.23 | −2.87 |
σPWL
| – | – | 0.50 | 20.31 |
Measurement model
| ||||
α1
| 0 | – | 0 | – |
α2
| −0.19 | −3.48 | −0.20 | −3.60 |
α3
| 0.09 | 1.48 | 0.08 | 1.35 |
α4
| 0.22 | 3.74 | 0.21 | 3.60 |
α5
| 0.42 | 6.97 | 0.43 | 7.04 |
α6
| 2.27 | 38.10 | 2.28 | 38.26 |
α7
| 4.93 | 81.17 | 4.93 | 81.11 |
α8
| 3.91 | 74.87 | 3.93 | 75.07 |
λ1
| 1 | – | 1 | – |
λ2
| 0.95 | 72.99 | 0.95 | 72.99 |
λ3
| 0.96 | 65.29 | 0.96 | 65.35 |
λ4
| 0.96 | 67.28 | 0.96 | 67.34 |
λ5
| 0.91 | 64.02 | 0.91 | 63.89 |
λ6
| 0.38 | 27.48 | 0.37 | 27.25 |
λ7
| −0.19 | −13.81 | −0.19 | −13.79 |
λ8
| −0.18 | −14.97 | −0.17 | −14.68 |
σ1
| 1.56 | 106.61 | 1.56 | 106.88 |
σ2
| 1.42 | 102.84 | 1.41 | 102.69 |
σ3
| 1.33 | 98.76 | 1.33 | 98.75 |
σ4
| 1.27 | 95.81 | 1.27 | 95.73 |
σ5
| 1.58 | 119.14 | 1.58 | 119.39 |
σ6
| 2.07 | 137.19 | 2.07 | 137.23 |
σ7
| 2.19 | 138.86 | 2.19 | 138.86 |
σ8
| 1.86 | 138.79 | 1.86 | 138.81 |
\(\alpha_{1}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | 0 | – |
\(\alpha_{2}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | −7.74 | −14.89 |
\(\alpha_{3}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | −2.41 | −8.59 |
\(\alpha_{4}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | −7.74 | −14.72 |
\(\lambda_{1}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | 1 | – |
\(\lambda_{2}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | 2.8 | 19.91 |
\(\lambda_{3}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | 1.46 | 19.27 |
\(\lambda_{4}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | 2.87 | 19.17 |
\(\sigma_{1}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | 1.88 | 133.92 |
\(\sigma_{2}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | 1.41 | 72.26 |
\(\sigma_{3}^{{\prime }}\)
| – | – | 1.81 | 127.43 |
\(\sigma_{4}^{{\prime }}\)
| 1.35 | 64.11 |