Abstract
Interventions aimed at raising awareness of gender inequity in the workplace provide information about sexism, which can elicit reactance or fail to promote self-efficacy. We examined the effectiveness of experiential learning using the Workshop Activity for Gender Equity Simulation – Academic version (WAGES-Academic) to deliver gender inequity information. To assess whether the way gender inequity information is presented matters, we compared WAGES-Academic to an Information Only condition (knowledge without experiential learning) and a Group Activity control condition. We predicted that only the information presented in an experiential learning format (i.e., WAGES-Academic) would be retained because this information does not provoke reactance and instills self-efficacy. Participants (n = 241; U.S. college students from a large mid-Atlantic state university) filled out a gender equity knowledge test at baseline, after the intervention, and then 7–11 days later (to assess knowledge retention). In addition, we measured feelings of reactance and self-efficacy after the intervention. Results revealed that participants in the WAGES condition retained more knowledge than the other conditions. Furthermore, the effect of WAGES vs. Information Only on knowledge was mediated by WAGES producing less reactance and greater feelings of self-efficacy. Results suggest that experiential learning is a powerful intervention to deliver knowledge about gender equity in a non-threatening, lasting way.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E. L., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 278–308. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.5.2.278.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191.
Bandura, A. (1992). Exercise of personal agency through the self-efficacy mechanism. In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-efficacy: Thought control of action (pp. 3–38). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
Bandura, A. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education & Behavior, 31, 143–164. doi:10.1177/1090198104263660.
Barreto, M., Ryan, M. K., & Schmitt, M. (2009). The glass ceiling in the 21st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality. Washington, DC: APA.
Barzansky, B., & Etzel, S. I. (2011). Medical schools in the United States, 2010–2011. Journal of the American Medical Association, 306, 1007–1014. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.1220.
Becker, J. C., & Swim, J. K. (2011). Seeing the unseen: Attention to daily encounters with sexism as way to reduce sexist beliefs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 227–242. doi:10.1177/0361684310397509.
Begany, J. J., & Milburn, M. A. (2002). Psychological predictors of sexual harassment: Authoritarianism, hostile sexism, and rape myths. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 3, 119–126. doi:10.1037/1524-9920.3.2.119.
Bellas, M. L. (1993). Faculty salaries: Still a cost of being female? Social Science Quarterly, 74, 62–75.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (expanded ed.). Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Brehm, J. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic.
Brehm, S. S., & Brehm, J. W. (1981). Psychological reactance. New York, NY: Academic.
Burke, M. J., Salvador, R. O., Smith-Crowe, K., Chan-Serafin, S., Smith, A., & Sonesh, S. (2011). The dread factor: How hazards and safety training influence learning and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 46–70. doi:10.1037/a0021838.
Busch, T. (1995). Gender differences in self-efficacy attitudes toward computers. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12, 147–158. doi:10.2190/H7E1-XMM7-GU9B-3HWR.
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Kao, C. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 306–307. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4803_13.
Cantor, J. A. (1997). Experiential learning in higher education: Linking classroom and community (ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 7). Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education.
Chan, D. K.-S., Lam, C. B., Chow, S. Y., & Cheung, S. F. (2008). Examining the job-related, psychological, and physical outcomes of workplace sexual harassment: A meta-analytic review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 362–376. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00451.x.
Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, 85.
Deitch, E. A., Barsky, A., Butz, R. M., Chan, S., Brief, A. P., & Bradley, J. C. (2003). Subtle yet significant: The existence and impact of everyday racial discrimination in the workplace. Human Relations, 56, 1299–1324. doi:10/1177/00187267035611002.
Drach-Zahavy, A., & Erez, M. (2002). Challenge versus threat effects on the goal-performance relationship. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 88, 667–682. doi:10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00004-3.
Eubank, D., Orzano, J., Geffken, D., & Ricci, R. (2011). Teaching team membership to family medicine residents: What does it take? Families, Systems & Health, 29, 29–43. doi:10.1037/a0022306.
Floyd, D. L., Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (2006). A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 407–429. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150–170. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.150.
Frieze, I. H., Olson, J. E., & Good, D. C. (1990). Perceived and actual discrimination in the salaries of male and female managers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 46–67. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb00377.x.
Gist, M. E., & Mitchell, T. R. (1992). Self-efficacy: A theoretical analysis of its determinants and malleability. The Academy of Management Review, 17, 183–211. doi:10.2307/258770.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1997). Hostile and benevolent sexism: Measuring ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 119–135. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00104.x.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56, 109–118. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.2.109.
Ginther, D. K., & Hayes, K. J. (2003). Gender differences in salary and promotion for faculty in the Humanities 1977–95. Journal of Human Resources, 38, 34–73. doi:10.3368/jhr.XXXVIII.1.34.
Good, A., & Abraham, C. (2011). Can the effectiveness of health promotion campaigns be improved using self-efficacy and self-affirmation interventions? An analysis of sun protection messages. Psychology and Health, 26, 799–818. doi:10.1080/08870446.2010.495157.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. The Academy of Management Review, 10, 76–88. doi:10.2307/258214.
Hoare, R. (2012, May 9). Meet Fortune 500’s female powerbrokers. CNN. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/08/business/f500-leading-women/index.html
Hong, S., & Page, S. (1989). A psychological reactance scale: Development, factor structure and reliability. Psychological Reports, 64, 1323–1326. doi:10.2466/pr0.1989.64.3c.1323.
Hunt, C. M., Davidson, M. J., Fielden, S. L., & Hoel, H. (2010). Reviewing sexual harassment in the workplace – an intervention model. Personnel Review, 39, 12655–12673. doi:10.1108/00483481011064190.
Jones, G. P., & Jacklin, C. N. (1988). Changes in sexist attitudes toward women during introductory women’s and men’s studies course. Sex Roles, 18, 611–622. doi:10.1007/BF00287964.
Jost, J. T., & Kay, A. C. (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 498–509. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498.
Kilmartin, C., Smith, T., Green, A., Heinzen, H., Kuchler, M., & Kolar, D. (2008). A real time social norms intervention to reduce male sexism. Sex Roles, 59, 264–273. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9446-y.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education. The Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4, 193–212. doi:10.5172/jmo.16.1.100.
Luzzo, D. A., & McWhirter, E. H. (2001). Sex and ethnic differences in the perception of educational and career-related barriers and levels of coping efficacy. Journal of Counseling and Development, 79, 61–67. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2001.tb01944.x.
Physician Statistics (2012). Retrieved from http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/about-ama/our-people/member-groups-sections/minority-affairs-section/physician-statistics.page.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879.
Pryor, J. B. (1987). Sexual harassment proclivities in men. Sex Roles, 17, 269–270. doi:10.1007/BF00299453.
Renzulli, L. A., Grant, L., & Kathuria, S. (2006). Race, gender, and the wage gap: Comparing faculty salaries in predominantly white and historically black colleges and universities. Gender and Society, 20, 491–510. doi:10.1177/0891243206287130.
Rosen, B., & Mericle, M. F. (1979). Influence of strong versus weak fair employment policies and applicant's sex on selection decisions and salary. Recommendations in a management simulation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 435–439. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.64.4.435.
Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2008). The social psychology of gender: How power and intimacy shape gender relations. New York: Guilford Press.
Schwarzer, R. (1992). Self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of healthy behaviors: Theoretical approaches and a new model. In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-efficacy: Thought control of action (pp. 217–243). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
Schmidt, H. G., Loyens, S. M. M., van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2007). Problem-based learning is compatible with human cognitive architecture: Commentary on Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational Psychologist, 42, 91–97. doi:10.1080/00461520701263350.
Sherer, M., Maddux, J. E., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. W. (1982). The self-efficacy scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663–671. doi:10.2466/pr0.1982.51.2.663.
Shields, S. A., Zawadzki, M. J., & Johnson, R. N. (2011). The impact of the Workshop Activity for Gender Equity Simulation in the Academy (WAGES-Academic) in demonstrating cumulative effects of gender bias. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4, 120–129. doi:10.1037/a0022953.
Springer, L, M. E. Stanne, & S. S. Donovan. (1997). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Research Monograph 11. University of Wisconsin-Madison: National Institute for Science Education.
Stevens, C. K., Bavetta, A. G., & Gist, M. E. (1993). Gender differences in the acquisition of salary negotiation skills: The role of goals, self-efficacy, and perceived control. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 723–735. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.5.723.
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271–286. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271.
Swim, J. K., Aiken, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199–214. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.199.
Swim, J. K., Becker, J., Lee, E., & Pruitt, E. R. (2009). Sexism reloaded: Worldwide evidence for its endorsement, expression, and emergence in multiple contexts. In H. Landrine & N. Russo (Eds.), Bringing diversity to feminist psychology. New York, NY: Spring.
Swim, J. K., & Cohen, L. L. (1997). Overt, covert, and subtle sexism: A comparison between the Attitudes Toward Women and Modern Sexism Scales. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 103–118. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00103.x.
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31–53. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00200.
Swim, J. K., Mallet, R., & Stangor, C. (2004). Understanding subtle sexism: Detection and use of sexist language. Sex Roles, 51, 117–128. doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000037757.73192.06.
Valian, V. (1998). Why so slow? The advancement of women. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Webster-Wright, A. (2009). Reframing professional development through understanding authentic professional learning. Review of Educational Research, 79, 702–739. doi:10.3102/0034654308330970.
Weisgram, E. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2007). Effects of learning about gender discrimination on adolescent girls’ attitudes toward and interest in science. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 262–269. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00369.x.
Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59, 329–349. doi:10.1080/03637759209376276.
Wright, A. L., Schwindt, L. A., Bassford, T. L., Reyna, V. F., Shisslak, C. M., St. Germain, P. A., & Reed, K. L. (2003). Gender differences in academic advancement: Patterns, causes, and potential solutions in one U.S. college of medicine. Academic Medicine, 78, 500–508.
Zappe, S. E. (2006). Analysis of the “Understanding of Gender Inequality Issues and Sexual Harassment Scale.” Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
Acknowledgments
Based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under award #0820212 to Stephanie A. Shields, Ph.D. In-kind support was provided by The Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence, The Pennsylvania State University. We thank Elizabeth Demeusy, April Foster, and Brittney Schlechter for their invaluable assistance as experimenters.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendices
Appendix A State Reactance Items
INSTRUCTIONS: We would like to hear about your reactions to the study. Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements using the scale below.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | ||||||
Strongly Disagree | Strongly Agree |
(1) I disagree with much of the information given today
(2) I agree with the information given today
(3) Much of the information I got today I accept as true
(4) Much of the information given today seemed exaggerated
Note: Items 2 and 3 are reverse scored
Appendix B State Self-Efficacy Items
INSTRUCTIONS: We would like to hear about your reactions to the study. Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements using the scale below.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | ||||||
Strongly Disagree | Strongly Agree |
(1) What I heard today provides opportunities for me to strengthen my self-esteema
(2) Being in this study made me feel that certain that when I make plans, I can make them workb
(3) What I heard today provides opportunities for me to overcome obstaclesb
(4) Being in this study made me feel that even if I can’t do a job the first time, I can keep trying until I succeeda
(5) What I heard today challenges meb
(6) What I heard today provides opportunities to exercise my reasoning skillsb
(7) I feel hopeful about using the information given todayc
Note: Items were adapted from several scales as follows
a = Items adapted from the Self-Efficacy Scale; Sherer et al. (1982)
b = Items adapted from threat vs. challenge measures; Drach-Zahavy and Erez (2002)
c = Item adapted from the emotions that measure threat and challenge; Folkman and Lazarus (1985)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zawadzki, M.J., Danube, C.L. & Shields, S.A. How to Talk about Gender Inequity in the Workplace: Using WAGES as an Experiential Learning Tool to Reduce Reactance and Promote Self-Efficacy. Sex Roles 67, 605–616 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0181-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0181-z