Abstract
This article investigates whether different formats of visualizing information result in different mental models constructed in learning from pictures, whether the different mental models lead to different patterns of performance in subsequently presented tasks, and how these visualization effects can be modified by further external representations during task performance. A total of 80 university students learned from an illustrated text different day times and different dates exist simultaneously on the earth. One half of the participants received the text combined with pictures visualizing the earth as a kind of carpet (carpet pictures), whereas the other half received the text combined with pictures visualizing the earth surface as a circle (circle pictures). After learning, the participants received a test including different kinds of tasks. In both visualization groups, one half of the participants solved the tasks with an additional external representation, whereas the other half solved the tasks without an external representation. The findings indicate that the form of visualization affects the structure of mental models. Different structures of mental models result in different patterns of performance, when individuals solve tasks based only on their mental representations acquired during their previous learning. However, these effects decrease, when further external representations are made available to the learners. The findings are discussed within a broader framework of learning with multiple external representations.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ainsworth, S. (1999). The functions of multiple representations. Computers & Education, 33, 131–152.
Ainsworth, S. (2006). DeFT: A conceptual framework for learning with multiple representations. Learning and Instruction, 16, 183–198.
Ainsworth, S., Bibby, P., & Wood, D. (2002). Examining the effects of different multiple representational systems in learning primary mathematics. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 11, 25–61.
Ainsworth, S., & Th Loizou, A. (2003). The effects of self-explaining when learning with text or diagrams. Cognitive Science, 27, 669–681.
Ainsworth, S., & Van Labeke, N. (2004). Multiple forms of dynamic representation. Learning and Instruction, 14, 241–255.
Amthauer, R. (1973). Intelligenz-Struktur-Test 70 (IST–70). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Bibby, P. A., & Payne, S. J. (1993). Internalization and the use specifity of device knowledge. Human-Computer Interaction, 8, 25–56.
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1992). The split-attention effect as a factor in the design of instruction. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 233–246.
Falkenhainer, B., Forbus, K. D., & Gentner, D. (1989/90). The structure mapping engine: Algorithm and examples. Artificial Intelligence, 41, 1–63.
Gentner, D. (1983). Structure-mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. Cognitive Science, 7, 155–170.
Gentner, D., & Stevens, A. L. (1983). Mental models. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gilmore, D. J., & Green, T. R. G. (1984). Comprehension and recall of miniature programs. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 21, 31–48.
Graesser, A. C., Leon, J. A., & Otero, J. (2002). Introduction to the psychology of science text comprehension. In J. Otero, J. A. Leon, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), The psychology of sciene text comprehension (pp. 1–18). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Graesser, A. C., Millis, K. K., & Zwaan, R. A. (1997). Discourse comprehension. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 163–189.
Gyselinck, V., & Tardieu, H. (1999). The role of illustrations in text comprehension: What, when, for whom, why?. In H. van Oostendorp & S. R. Goldman (Eds.), The construction of mental representations during reading (pp. 195–218). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Jäger, A., & Althoff, K. (1983). Der WILDE-Intelligenz-Test (WIT). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental models. Towards a cognitive science of language, inference, and consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1996). Images, models, and propositional representations. In M. de Vega, M. J. Intons-Peterson, P. N. Johnson-Laird, M. Denis, & M. Marschark (Eds.), Models of visuospatial cognition (pp. 90–127). New York: Oxford University Press.
Johnson-Laird, P. N., & Byrne, R. (1991). Deduction. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kirsch, I., & Jungblut, A. (1986). Literacy: Profiles of America’s young adults. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). Image and brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Larkin, J., & Simon, H. (1987). Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth ten thousands words? Cognitive Sciences, 11, 65–99.
Levie, H. W., & Lentz, R. (1982). Effects of text illustration: A review of research. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 30, 195–232.
Levin, J. R., Anglin, G. J., & Carney, R. N. (1987). On empirically validating functions of pictures in prose. In D. M. Willows & H. A. Houghton (Eds.), The psychology of illustration (pp. 51–85). New York: Springer.
Massironi, M. (2002). The psychology of graphic images: Seeing, drawing, communication. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Mayer, R. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions. Educational Psychologist, 32, 1–19.
Mayer, R. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mayer, R. (2005). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mayer, R., & Moreno, R. (2002). Aids to computer-based multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 12(1), 107–119.
Mosenthal, P. B., & Kirsch, I. S. (1991). Toward an explanatory model of document literacy. Discourse Processes, 14, 147–180.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual-coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Peirce, C. S. (1906). Prolegomena to an apology for pragmaticism. The Monist, 16, 492–546.
Schnotz, W. (1993). On the relation between dual coding and mental models in graphics comprehension. Learning and Instruction, 3, 247–249.
Schnotz, W. (1994). Wissenserwerb mit logischen Bildern. In B. Weidenmann (Ed.), Wissenserwerb mit Bildern (pp. 95–148). Göttingen: Hans Huber.
Schnotz, W. (2005). An integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 49–69). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schnotz, W., & Bannert, M. (1999). Einflüsse der Visualisierungsform auf die Konstruktion mentaler Modelle beim Text- und Bildverstehen. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 46(3), 217–236.
Schnotz, W., & Bannert, M. (2003). Construction and interference in learning from multiple representation. Learning and Instruction, 13(2), 141–156.
Schnotz, W., & Kulhavy, R. W. (1994). Comprehension of graphics. Volume in the series advances in psychology. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishers.
Schnotz, W., & Lowe, R. (2003). Special issue introduction: External and internal representations in multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction 13, 117–123.
Shepard, R. N. (1984). Ecological restraints on internal representation. Psychological Review, 91, 417–447.
Ullmann, S. (1984). Visual routines. Cognition, 18, 97–159.
van Dijk, T. A., & Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. New York: Academic Press.
van Someren, M., Reimann, P., Boshuizen, H. A. P., & de Jong, T. (1998). Learning with multiple representations. Amsterdam: Pergamon.
Weaver, C., Mannes, S., & Fletcher, C. (1995). Discourse comprehension: Essays in honor of Walter Kintsch. Hillsdale: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates.
Wertheimer, M. (1938). Laws of organization in perceptual forms. In W. D. Ellis (Ed.), A source book of Gestalt psychology London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.
Winn, W. (1994). Contributions of perceptual and cognitive processes to the comprehension of graphics. In W. Schnotz & R. Kulhavy (Eds.), Comprehension of graphics (pp. 3–27). Amsterdam: Science.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Schnotz, W., Kürschner, C. External and internal representations in the acquisition and use of knowledge: visualization effects on mental model construction. Instr Sci 36, 175–190 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-007-9029-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-007-9029-2