Skip to main content
Log in

Service Learning and Community Engagement: A Comparison of Three National Contexts

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

One of the presumptions of a well-functioning, viable democracy is that citizens participate in the life of their communities and nation. The role of higher education in forming actively engaged citizens has long been the focus of scholarly research, but recently an active debate has emerged concerning the role of service as a third core function of institutions of higher learning. Service learning (SL), a teaching approach that extends student learning beyond the classroom, is increasingly seen as a vehicle to realize this third core function. By aligning educational objectives with community partners’ needs, community service is meant to enhance, among other objectives, reciprocal learning. Although the term and its associated activities originated in the United States (US), theoretical debates linking civic engagement and education extend far beyond the US context. Nevertheless, research on SL as a distinctive pedagogical approach remains a nascent field. A significant gap exists in the literature about what this pedagogical approach seeks to achieve (in nature and in outcomes) and how it is construed in non-western contexts. Using a comparative analysis across three widely different contexts, this article explores the extent to which these differences are merely differences in degree or whether the differences are substantive enough to demand qualitatively different models for strengthening the relationship between higher education and civil society.

Résumé

L’une des présomptions au sujet d’une démocratie viable et opérationnelle est que les citoyens prennent part à la vie de la communauté locale et de la nation. Le rôle que joue l’éducation supérieure pour la formation de citoyens engagés de manière active dans la vie sociale a depuis longtemps occupé une place importante dans la recherche universitaire, tandis qu’un débat actif est récemment apparu pour ce qui concerne le rôle de service en tant que troisième principale mission des institutions de l’éducation supérieure. L’apprentissage par le service communautaire, une méthode d’enseignement qui étend l’apprentissage des étudiants au-delà de la salle de classe, est de plus en plus considéré comme un moyen de réaliser cette troisième mission fondamentale. En mettant en adéquation les objectifs éducationnels et les besoins des partenaires, le service communautaire est destiné à intensifier, entre autres, l’apprentissage réciproque. Bien que le terme et les activités qui y sont associées proviennent des États-Unis, les débats théoriques qui établissent le lien entre l’engagement civique et l’éducation dépassent largement le contexte américain. Néanmoins, la recherche sur l’apprentissage par le service communautaire en tant qu’approche pédagogique unique demeure une discipline naissante. Il existe une divergence significative dans les publications sur ce que cette approche pédagogique vise à obtenir (intrinsèquement et en termes de résultats) et quelles interprétations lui ont été données dans les contextes non-occidentaux. À l’aide d’une analyse comparative de trois contextes très différents, ce document étudie dans quelle mesure ces disparités existent simplement en raison de leur intensité inégale, ou si celles-ci relèvent de questions de fond suffisantes pour demander d’autres modèles sur le plan qualitatif dans le but de renforcer les liens entre l’éducation supérieure et la société civile.

Zusammenfassung

Eine der Voraussetzungen für eine gut funktionierende und existenzfähige Demokratie ist die Beteiligung der Bürger am Geschehen ihrer Gemeinden und ihrer Nation. Die wissenschaftliche Forschung konzentriert sich seit langem auf die Rolle der Hochschulbildung bei der Herausbildung aktiv engagierter Bürger; doch seit kurzem ist auch die Rolle der Dienstleistungen als eine dritte Kernfunktion der höheren Bildungseinrichtungen ein reges Diskussionsthema. Lernen durch Engagement, eine Lehrmethode, die das Lernen aus dem Klassenraum hinaus verlagert, wird zunehmend als ein Vehikel zur Realisierung dieser dritten Kernfunktion betrachtet. Durch die Anpassung der Bildungsziele an die Bedürfnisse der Gemeinde soll die gemeinnützige Arbeit unter anderem das reziproke Lernen fördern. Ursprünglich stammt der Begriff service learning und die damit verbundenen Aktivitäten aus den USA; doch die Diskussionen über die Verbindung zwischen Bürgerengagement und Bildung gehen weit über den US-Kontext hinaus. Trotzdem befindet sich die Forschung zum Lernen durch Engagement als eine bezeichnende pädagogische Methode noch in den Anfängen. Es gibt eine erhebliche Lücke in der Literatur hinsichtlich der Frage, was dieser pädagogische Ansatz zu erreichen versucht (hinsichtlich der Art und Weise und der Ergebnisse) und wie er in nicht-westlichen Kontexten ausgelegt wird. Dieser Beitrag untersucht mittels einer vergleichenden Analyse dreier weitgehend unterschiedlicher Kontexte, ob sich diese lediglich in geringem Maße unterscheiden oder ob die Unterschiede groß genug sind, um qualitativ unterschiedliche Modelle zur Vertiefung des Verhältnisses zwischen der Hochschulbildung und der Bürgergesellschaft zu fordern.

Resumen

Una de las presunciones de cualquier democracia eficaz y viable es que los ciudadanos participen en la vida de sus comunidades y de su país. El papel de la educación superior en la formación de ciudadanos activamente comprometidos lleva tiempo siendo el centro de las investigaciones académicas, pero recientemente ha surgido un vivo debate sobre el papel de los servicios como tercer protagonista esencial de las instituciones de alta formación. El aprendizaje de servicios, un enfoque docente que consiste en ampliar el aprendizaje de los estudiantes más allá del aula de formación, se considera un vehículo para realizar esta tercera función esencial. Adaptando los objetivos educativos a las necesidades de los socios comunitarios, el servicio comunitario pretende, entre otros objetivos, mejorar el aprendizaje recíproco. Aunque el término y sus actividades asociadas se originaron en los Estados Unidos, los debates teóricos que vinculan el compromiso cívico con la educación traspasa el contexto estadounidense. No obstante, las investigaciones sobre aprendizaje de servicios como enfoque pedagógico distintivo siguen siendo un campo novedoso. Existe una importante laguna en la literatura sobre los objetivos de este enfoque pedagógico (en cuanto a naturaleza y resultados) y sobre cómo se interpreta en contextos no occidentales. Utilizando un análisis comparativo en tres contextos muy diferentes, este trabajo analiza si esas diferencias lo son simplemente de grado o si son lo suficientemente importantes para exigir unos modelos cualitativamente distintos que refuercen la relación entre la educación superior y la sociedad civil.

摘要

对一个运作良好的、可行的民主制度,有一个假定是其公民参与他们社区和国家社会活动。高等教育在造就积极参与的公民们方面所扮演的角色,长期以来是学术研究的重点。但是,最近出现了一项活跃的辩论,与服务作为高等院校第三个核心功能有关。服务学习是一项将学生学习扩展到课堂以外的教学方法,越来越被视为是实现这一第三个核心功能的手段。通过使教育目标与社区合作伙伴的需要一致,在各项其他目标中,社区服务旨在强化相互学习。尽管该术语及其相关活动源于美国,将公民参与和教育相链接的理论性辩论远远超出其在美国发生的背景。尽管如此,服务学习作为一项独特的教学方法仍然是一个新兴的领域。有关此项独特教学方法(在性质和成果方面)意欲达到的目标,在文献中和在非西方背景中如何进行解释这两者之间存在巨大的差距。本论文利用对三个差异甚大的背景进行比较分析,探讨了在何种程度上这些差异只是程度上的差异,还是存在着实质性分歧,足以要求不同性质的模式来加强高等教育和公民社会之间的关系。

ملخص:

أحد إفتراضات الديمقراطية الفعالة التي تعمل بشكل جيد، هي التي يشارك المواطنون في حياة مجتمعاتهم والأمة. دور التعليم العالي في تشكيل المواطنين النشطاء منذ فترة طويلة ركز على البحوث العلمية ولكن مؤخرا ظهرت مناقشة نشطة فيما يتعلق بدور الخدمة كمهمة أساسية ثالثة لمؤسسات التعليم العالي. خدمة التعلم ، نهج التدريس الذي يوسع نطاق تعلم الطلاب إلى أبعد من خارج الفصول الدراسية ينظر له بشكل متزايد كوسيلة لتحقيق هذه المهمة الرئيسية الثالثة. بالتوفيق بين الأهداف التعليمية مع احتياجات الشركاء في المجتمع، خدمة المجتمع المحلي تهدف إلى تعزيز، بين الأهداف الأخرى، التعلم المتبادل. على الرغم من أن الفترة و الأنشطة المرتبطة بها نشأت في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية ((US، المناقشة النظرية التي تربط المشاركة المدنية والتعليم تمتد خارج سياق الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية. على الرغم من ذلك، البحث في خدمة التعلم كنهج تربوي مميز لا يزال مجال ناشئ. هناك فجوة كبيرة في الكتابات حول ما الذي يسعى إلى تحقيقه هذا النهج التربوي (في الطبيعة وفي النتائج)، وكيف يتم تفسيرها في سياقات غير غربية. إستخدام تحليل مقارن عبر ثلاثة سياقات مختلفة على نطاق واسع، يستكشف هذا البحث إلى أي مدى أن هذه الاختلافات مجرد اختلافات في المنزلة أو إذا كانت الإختلافات موضوعية بما فيه الكفاية للمطالبة بنماذج مختلفة نوعياً عن تعزيز العلاقة بين التعليم العالي والمجتمع المدني.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. See Bringle and Steinberg (in press) for a discussion of what constitutes a civic-minded graduate. They identify seven core elements that signify a civic-minded graduate that include: (1) academic knowledge and technical skills, (2) knowledge of volunteer opportunities and nonprofit organizations, (3) knowledge of contemporary and social issues, (4) listening and communication skills, (5) diversity skills, (6) self-efficacy, and (7) behavioral intentions as a predictor of civically engaged behavior.

References

  • Afoaku, O. G. (2005). Explaining the failure of democracy in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Autocracy and dissent in an ambivalent world. Lewiston, NY: Mellen Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ANC. (1994). The reconstruction and development programme. A policy framework. African National Congress. http://www.anc.org.za/ancindex.html.

  • Annette, J. (2003). Service-learning internationally: Developing a global civil society. In S. Billig & J. Eyler (Eds.), Deconstructing service-learning: Research exploring context, participation, and impacts (pp. 241–249). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ash, A. L., Clayton, P. H., & Atkinson, M. P. (2005). Integrating reflection and assessment to capture and improve student learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 11(2), 49–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astin, A. W., & Sax, L. J. (1998). How undergraduates are affected by service participation. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 251–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astin, A. W., Sax, L. J., & Avalos, J. (1999). The long-term effects of volunteerism during the undergraduate years. Review of Higher Education, 22(2), 187–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Battistoni, R. M. (2002). Civic engagement across the curriculum: A resource book for service learning faculty in all disciplines. Providence, RI: Campus Compact.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bender, C. J. G. (2007). Pathways of change for integrating community service-learning into the core curriculum. Education for Change, 11(3), Special Issue: CSL.

  • Bender, C. J. G. (2008). Curriculum enquiry about community engagement at a research university. South African Journal for Higher Education, 22(6), 1154–1171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Billig, S. H., & Eyler, J. (2003). The state of service-learning and service-learning research. In S. H. Billig & J. Eyler (Eds.), Deconstructing service-learning: Research exploring context, participation, and impacts (pp. 253–264). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bringle, R. G., & Erasmus, M. (Guest Editors). (2005). Research and (community) service learning in South African higher education institutions. Acta Academica Supplementum, 3.

  • Bringle, R. G., Games, R., & Malloy, E. A. (Eds.). (1999). Colleges and universities as citizens. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (1995). A service-learning curriculum for faculty. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 2, 112–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A., (2006, October). Where’s the community impact in service-learning research. Panel presented at 6th Annual International Conference on Service-Learning Research, Portland, OR.

  • Bringle, R. G., Hatcher, J. A., & Clayton, P. H. (2006a). The scholarship of civic engagement: Defining, documenting, and evaluating faculty work. To Improve the Academy, 25, 257–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bringle, R. G., Hatcher, J. A., & Holland, B. (2007). Conceptualizing civic engagement: Orchestrating change at a metropolitan university. Metropolitan Universities, 18(3), 57–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bringle, R. G., Hatcher, J. A., & McIntosh, R. (2006b). Analyzing Morton’s typology of service paradigms and integrity. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 13(1), 5–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bringle, R. G., & Steinberg, K. (in press). Educating for informed community involvement. American Journal of Community Psychology.

  • Browne, D. L. (2001). Democratic Congo. In R. Marlow-Ferguson (Ed.), World education encyclopedia: A survey of educational systems world wide (2nd ed.). Detroit, MI: Gale Groups, Thomson Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Camay, P., & Gordon, A. (2002, July). Civil society as advocate for social change in pre-and post-transition societies: Building sound governance in South Africa. Paper presented at the ISTR Conference, Cape Town, South Africa. Johannesburg, SA: Co-operative for Research and Education.

  • Castle, J., & Osman, R. (2003). Service learning in teacher education: An institutional model for an emerging practice. South African Journal of Higher Education, 17(1), 105–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colby, A., Ehrlich, T., Beaumont, E., & Stephens, J. (2003). Educating citizens: Preparing America’s undergraduates for lives of moral and civic responsibility. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Education. (1997, August). Education white paper 3. A programme for higher education transformation. Government Gazette No. 18207. Pretoria: Government Printers.

  • Department of Education. (2004). Report of the technical team: Investigation into the state funding of experiential learning at higher education institutions. Pretoria: Government Printers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Driscoll, A., Holland, B., Gelmon, S., & Kerrigan, S. (1996). An assessment model for service-learning: Comprehensive case studies of impact on faculty, students, community, and institutions. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 3, 66–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Du Pre, R. (2003). Coping with change in South Africa. Adults Learning, October 10–11.

  • Erasmus, M. A. (2005). Introduction: Community service learning and the South African research agenda. Acta Academica Supplementum, 3, 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eyler, J., & Giles, D. E., Jr. (1999). Where’s the learning in service-learning? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fourie, M. (2003). Beyond the ivory tower: Service learning for sustainable community development. South African Journal of Higher Education, 17(1), 31–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furco, A. (1996). Service-learning: A balanced approach to experiential education. In Corporation for National Service (Ed.), Expanding boundaries: Serving and learning (pp. 2–6). Columbia, MD: The Cooperative Education Association.

  • Gibbons, M. (2006, September). Engagement as a core value in a mode 2 society. Paper presented at the CHE-HEQC/JET-CHESP conference on community engagement in higher education, Cape Town.

  • Giovannoni, M., Trefon, T., Kasongo Banga, J., & Mwema, C. (2004). Acting on behalf (and in spite) of the state: NGOs and civil society associations in Kinshasa. In T. Trefon (Ed.), Reinventing order in the Congo: How people respond to state failure in Kinshasa (pp. 99–115). New York: ZED Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). (2006). Service-learning in the curriculum: A resource for higher education institutions. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higher Education Quality Committee/JET Education Services. (2006). A good practice guide and self-evaluation instruments for managing the quality of service-learning. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellogg Commission on the Future of State, Land Grant Universities. (1999). Returning to our roots: The engaged institution. Washington, DC: NASULGC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langseth, M., & Plater, W. M. (Eds.). (2004). Public work and the academy: An academic administrator’s guide to civic engagement and service-learning. Bolton, MA: Anker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, J. (2001, November). A new contract between higher education and society: Responsiveness through a scholarship of engagement. Paper presented at the third consultative conference of the council on higher education.

  • Lazarus, J. (2005). Community engagement in higher education. Joint Education Trust Education Services Bulletin, 12, 5–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, J. (2007). Embedding service learning in higher education in South Africa: The catalytic role of the CHESP initiative. Education for Change, 11(3), Special Issue: CSL.

  • Lazarus, J., Erasmus, M., Nduna, J., Hendricks, D., & Slamat, J. (2008). Embedding community engagement in higher education in South Africa. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 1(3), 57–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Grange, L. (2005). The ‘idea of engagement’ and ‘the African university in the 21st century’: Some reflections. South African Journal of Higher Education, Special Issue, 1208–1219.

  • Lelo, M. (2003). Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire). In D. M. Teferra & P. C. Altbach (Eds.), African higher education: An international reference handbook (pp. 265–272). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, P. (2003, November). Service-learning research and the movement for youth civic engagement. Keynote address at the third annual international service-learning research conference, Salt Lake City, UT.

  • Lulat, Y. G. M. (2003). The development of higher education in Africa. In D. M. Teferra & P. C. Altbach (Eds.), African higher education: An international reference handbook (pp. 15–31). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marais, L., & Botes, L. (2006). Putting the horse before the cart: Policy research, partnerships and community service. Acta Academica Supplementum, 3, 178–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marais, S., Naidoo, A., Donson, H., & Nortje, C. (2007). Strategic violence prevention partnerships in a peri-urban South African town: The case of the Jamestown community project. African Safety Promotion Journal, 5(1), 19–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIlrath, L., & MacLabhrainn, I. M. (2007). Higher education and civic engagement: International perspectives. Surrey, UK: Ashgate.

  • Metropolitan Universities, 14(2) (2003)

  • Mitchell, C., & Humphries, H. (2007). From notions of charity to social justice in service-learning: The complex experience of communities. Education for Change, 11(3), Special Issue: Community Service Learning.

  • Moely, B. E., & Miron, D. (2005). College students’ preferred approaches to community service: Charity and social change paradigms. In S. Root, J. Callahan, & S. H. Billig (Eds.), Improving service-learning practice: Research on models to enhance impacts (pp. 61–78). Greenwich, CN: Information Age Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, K. (1995). The irony of service: Charity, project, and social change in service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 2, 19–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naidoo, A. V., Duncan, N., Roos, V., Pillay, J., & Bowman, B. (2007). Analysis, context and action: An introduction to community psychology. In N. Duncan, A. V. Naidoo, J. Pillay, & V. Roos (Eds.), Community psychology in South Africa: Theory, context and practice (pp. 9–23). Wetton, RSA: UCT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naidoo, A. V., & Van Wyk, S. B. (2003). Intervening in communities: Combining curative and preventive interventions. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 25(1), 65–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naidoo, A. V., Van Wyk, S. B., & Carolissen, R. (2004). Community mental health. In L. Swartz, C. de la Rey, & N. Duncan (Eds.), Psychology: An introduction (pp. 513–526). Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nduna, J. (2007). The community voice on service-learning. A good practice guide for higher education. Education for Change, 11(3), Special Issue: CSL.

  • Njongola-Ntalaja, G. (2004). From Zaire to the Democratic Republic of Congo (2nd and revised ed.). Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.

  • Osborne, R. E., Hammerich, S., & Hensley, C. (1998). Student effects of service-learning: Tracking change across a semester. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 5, 5–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perold, H. (1998). Community service in higher education: Final report. Braamfontein: Joint Education Trust.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perold, H., Stroud, S., & Sherraden, M. (Eds.). (2003). Service enquiry. Service in the 21st Century (pp. 47–58). Cape Town, South Africa: Compress.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, J. L., & Thomson, A. M. (2004). Civic service: What difference does it make? Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, S. J., Jordan, N. R., Adamek, M., & Alter, T. R. (Eds.). (2006). Engaging campus and community: The practice of public scholarship in the state and land-grant university system. Dayton, OH: Charles F. Kettering Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prilleltensky, I. (2001). Value-based praxis in community psychology: Moving toward social justice and social action. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 747–778.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotberg, R. (2003). State failure and state weakness in a time of terror. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schudson, M. (2003). How people learn to be civic. Campus Compact Reader, Winter 14–21.

  • Stellenbosch University (SU). (2007). Stellenbosch service-learning capacity building program 2005/6. Report to community-higher education-service partnerships on service-learning capacity building program, Unpublished.

  • Thelin, J. R. (2004). A history of American higher education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, N. L. (1998). The institution as a citizen: How colleges and universities enhance their civic roles. Working Paper #22, New England Resource Center for Higher Education. Boston, MA: University of Massachusetts Boston.

  • Thomson, A. M. (2006). Field notes: Democratic Republic of Congo.

  • Trefon, T. (2004). Reinventing order in the Congo: How people respond to state failure in Kinshasa. New York: ZED Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Board for Christian Higher Education in Asia and International Christian University. (2002). Service learning in Asia: Creating networks and curricula in higher education. Tokyo, Japan: International Christian University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wandersman, A., & Florin, P. (1999). Citizen participation and community organizations. In J. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.), Handbook of community psychology (pp. 247–272). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westheimer, J., & Kahne, J. (2003, Winter). What kind of citizen? Political choices and educational goals. Campus Compact Reader, 1–13.

  • World Bank. (2005). Education in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Priorities and options for regeneration. Washington, DC: World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ann Marie Thomson.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Thomson, A.M., Smith-Tolken, A.R., Naidoo, A.V. et al. Service Learning and Community Engagement: A Comparison of Three National Contexts. Voluntas 22, 214–237 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-010-9133-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-010-9133-9

Keywords

Navigation