Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Source identification of bacterial and viral pathogens and their survival/fading in the process of wastewater treatment, reclamation, and environmental reuse

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Pathogenic safety is drawing wide concern in water reclamation and reuse. In order to elucidate survive/fade of pathogens during the processes of wastewater treatment and reclamation, general indicators (fecal coliform and Escherichia coli), pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella and Shigella) and viruses (enterovirus, rotavirus and norovirus) were investigated in an A2O-MBR system. Attention was paid to their strengths from different sources, at various stages of the treatment, and in the product water. According to findings, black water was the main source for pathogens—at least 1–2-log higher in concentration than those from other sources. The preliminary treatment of wastewater by fine screens could bring about 0.2–0.4-log removal for almost all pathogens. The biological treatment units achieved almost identical removal (1.3–1.7-log) for bacteria and viruses. However, subsequent treatment in the membrane bioreactor showed varied removal for fecal coliform (4.7-log), E. coli (2.6-log) and the other pathogens (0.7–1.0-log), indicating that a high reduction of indicator bacteria may not imply equivalent removal of bacterial and viral pathogens. Chlorination was proved to be effective for eliminating all pathogens. In the artificial lake where the product water was stored, fecal coliform was not detected during the study period, but E. coli and pathogens were frequently detected, indicating that these bacterial and viral pathogens may be originating from non-fecal sources. On sunny summer days, the lake water could be bacteria-free due to sunlight radiation, but viruses were still detectable. Therefore, secondary disinfection may have to be adopted when the reclaimed water stored in such an open reservoir is supplied for strict reuse purposes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmed W, Tucker J, Bettelheim KA, Neller R, Katoulia M (2007) Detection of virulence genes in Escherichia coli of an existing metabolic fingerprint database to predict the sources of pathogenic E. coli in surface waters. Water Res 41:3785–3791

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ana CL, Michel M, Andrey P, Javier M, Joan J, Rafael M, Lucena F (2008) Microbial indicators and pathogens: removal, relationships and predictive capabilities in water reclamation facilities. Water Res 42:4439–4448

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Angelakis AN, Bontoux L (2001) Wastewater reclamation and reuse in European countries. Water Policy 3:47–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayuso GN, Page D, Masciopinto C, Aharoni A, Salgot M, Wintgens T (2011) Quantifying the effect of Managed Aquifer Recharge on the microbiological human health risks of irrigating crops with recycled water. Agric Water Manag 99:93–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brookes JD, Antenucci J, Hipsey M, Burch MD, Ashbolt NJ, Ferguson C (2004) Fate and transport of pathogens in lakes and reservoirs. Environ Int 30:741–759

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • California Department of Health Services (1978) Wastewater reclamation criteria. California Admistrative code, title 22, division 4. California Department of Health Services, Berkeley

  • Chrysikopoulos CV, Aravantinou AF (2014) Virus attachment onto quartz sand: role of grain size and temperature. J Environ Chem Eng 2:796–801

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Claudia SF, Wichern M, Horn H (2008) The impact of sunlight on inactivation of indicator microorganisms both in river water and benthic biofilms. Water Res 42:4771–4779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dickenson JA, Sansalone JJ (2012) Distribution and disinfection of bacterial loadings associated with particulate matter fractions transported in urban wet weather flows. Water Res 46:6704–6714

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edberg S, Rice E, Karlin R, Allen M (2000) Escherichia coli: the best biological drinking water indicator for public health protection. J Appl Microbiol 88:106S–166S

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francy DS, Stelzer EA, Bushon RN, Brady AMG, Williston AG, Riddell KR, Borchardt MA, Spencer SK, Gellner TM (2012) Comparative effectiveness of membrane bioreactors, conventional secondary treatment, and chlorine and UV disinfection to remove microorganisms from municipal wastewaters. Water Res 46:4164–4178

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • George I, Crop P, Servais P (2002) Fecal coliform removal in wastewater treatment plants studied by plate counts and enzymatic methods. Water Res 36:2607–2617

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbride K (2014) Molecular Methods for the detection of waterborne pathogens. In: Bridle H (ed) Waterborne pathogens. Academic Press, Amsterdam, pp 231–290

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Girones R, Ferrús MA, Alonso JL, Rodriguez MJ, Calgua B, de Corrêa AA, Hundesa A, Carratala A, Bofill-Mas S (2010) Molecular detection of pathogens in water—the pros and cons of molecular techniques. Water Res 44:4325–4339

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graczyk TK, Lucy FE (2007) Quality of reclaimed waters: a public health need for source tracking of wastewater-derived protozoan enteropathogens in engineered wetlands. T R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101:532–533

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guérineau H, Dorner S, Carrière A, McQuaid N, Sauvé S, Aboulfadl K, Hajj-Mohamad M, Prévost M (2014) Source tracking of leaky sewers: a novel approach combining fecal indicators in water and sediments. Water Res 58:50–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haaken D, Dittmar T, Schmalz V, Worch E (2014) Disinfection of biologically treated wastewater and prevention of biofouling by UV/electrolysis hybrid technology: influence factors and limits for domestic wastewater reuse. Water Res 52:20–28

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haramoto E, Yamada K, Nishida K (2011) Prevalence of protozoa, viruses, coliphages and indicator bacteria in groundwater and river water in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepa. T R Soc Trop Med Hyg 105:711–716

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harwood VJ, Levine AD, Scott TM, Chivukula V, Lukasik J, Farrah SR, Rose JB (2005) Validity of the indicator organism paradigm for pathogen reduction in reclaimed water and public health protection. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:3163–3170

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang H, Young TA, Schwab KJ, Jacangelo JG (2012) Mechanisms of virus removal from secondary wastewater effluent by low pressure membrane filtration. J Membr Sci 409:1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katayama H, Shimasaki A, Ohgaki S (2002) Development of a virus concentration method and its application to detection of enterovirus and norwalk Virus from coastal seawater. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:1033–1039

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim T, Unno H (1996) The roles of microbes in the removal and inactivation of viruses in a biological wastewater treatment system. Water Sci Technol 33:243–250

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis GD, Metcaif TG (1988) Polyethylene glycol precipitation for recovery of pathogenic viruses, including hepatitis A virus and human rotavirus, from oyster, water, and sediment samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 54:1983–1988

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li D, Zeng S, Gu AZ, He M, Shi H (2013) Inactivation, reactivation and regrowth of indigenous bacteria in reclaimed water after chlorine disinfection of a municipal wastewater treatment plant. J Environ Sci-china 25:1319–1325

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manville D, Kleintop E, Miller B, Davis E, Mathewson J, Downs T (2001) Significance of indicator bacteria in a regionalized wastewater treatment plant and receiving waters. Int J Environ Pollut 15:461–466

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti E, Monclús H, Jofre J, Rodriguez-Roda I, Comas J, Balcázar JL (2011) Removal of microbial indicators from municipal wastewater by a membrane bioreactor (MBR). Bioresour Technol 10:5004–5009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nordgren J, Matussek A, Mattsson A, Svensson L, Lindgren PE (2009) Prevalence of norovirus and factors influencing virus concentrations during one year in a full-scale wastewater treatment plant. Water Res 43:1117–1125

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pang XL, Lee B, Boroumand N, Leblanc B, Preiksaitis JK, Ip CCY (2004) Increased detection of rotavirus using a real time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction -RT-PCR assay in stool specimens from children with diarrhea. J Med Virol 72:496–501

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Percival S (2004) The survival and persistence of viruses in water. Microbiol Waterborne Dis 25:345–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Percival SL, Williams DW (2014a) Salmonella. In: Percival SL, Yates MV, Williams DW, Chalmers RM, Gray NF (eds) Microbiology of waterborne diseases, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London, pp 209–222

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Percival SL, Williams DW (2014b) Shigella. In: Percival SL, Yates MV, Williams DW, Chalmers RM, Gray NF (eds) Microbiology of waterborne diseases, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London, pp 223–236

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rabenau HF, Clarici AMK, Mu¨hlbauer G, Berger A, Vince A, Muller S, Daghofer E, Santner BI, Marth E, Kessler HH (2002) Rapid detection of enterovirus infection by automated RNA extraction and real-time fluorescence PCR. J Clin Virol 25:155–164

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rahn K, Grandis SAD, Clarke RC, McEwen SA, Galin JE, Ginocchio C, Gyles CL (1992) Amplification of an invA gene sequence of Salmonella typhimurium by polymerase chain reaction as a specific method of detection of Salmonella. Mol Cell Probe 6:271–279

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Savichtcheva O, Okabe S (2006) Alternative indicators of fecal pollution: relations with pathogens and conventional indicators, current methodologies for direct pathogen monitoring and future application perspectives. Water Res 40:2463–2476

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sidhu JGR, Ho G, Unkovich I (2001) Role of indigenous microorganisms in suppression of Salmonella regrowth in composted biosolids. Water Res 35:913–920

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons FJ, Xagoraraki I (2011) Release of infectious human enteric viruses by full-scale wastewater utilities. Water Res 45:3590–3598

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons FJ, Kuo DHW, Xagoraraki I (2011) Removal of human enteric viruses by a full-scale membrane bioreactor during municipal wastewater processing. Water Res 45:2750–2793

    Google Scholar 

  • Soda S, Ike M, Fujita M (1999) Adsorption of bacterial cells onto activated sludge flocs. J Biosci Bioeng 87:513–518

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soller JA, Schoen ME, Bartrand T, Ravenscroft JE, Ashbolt NJ (2010) Estimated human health risks from exposure to recreational waters impacted by human and non-human sources of faecal contamination. Water Res 44:4674–4691

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soule H, Genoulazi O, Benedicte GC, Chevallier P, Liu JX, Seigneurin JM (2000) Ultrafiltration and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction an efficient process for poliovirus, rotavirus and hepatitis a virus detection in water. Water Res 34:1063–1067

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stals A, Baert L, Botteldoornc N, Werbrouck H, Herman L, Uyttendaele M (2009) Multiplex real-time RT-PCR for simultaneous detection of GI/GII noroviruses and murine norovirus 1. J Virol Methods 161:247–253

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • State Environmental Protection Agency (2002) Water and wastewater monitoring analysis method. China Environ Sci Press, Bejing, pp 704–706

    Google Scholar 

  • The state administration of quality supervision, inspection and quarantine of China (2002) The reuse of recycling water for urban—water quality standard for urban miscellaneous water consumption. GB/T 18920-2002

  • Theron J, Morar D, Preez MD, Brozel VS, Venter SN (2001) A sensitive seminested PCR method for the detection of Shigella in spiked environmental water samples. Water Res 35(4):869–874

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Toze S, Bekele E, Page D, Sidhu J, Shackleton M (2010) Use of static quantitative microbial risk assessment to determine pathogen risks in an unconfined carbonate aquifer used for managed aquifer recharge. Water Res 44(4):1038–1049

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (2004) Guidelines for water reuse. EPA/625/R-04/108

  • Wen Q, Tutuka C, Keegan A, Jin B (2009) Fate of pathogenic microorganisms and indicators in secondary activated sludge wastewater treatment plants. J Environ Manag 90:1442–1447

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yates MV (2014a) Enterovirus. In: Percival SL, Yates MV, Williams DW, Chalmers RM, Gray NF (eds) Microbiology of waterborne diseases, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London, pp 493–504

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Yates MV (2014b) Rotavirus. In: Percival SL, Yates MV, Williams DW, Chalmers RM, Gray NF (eds) Microbiology of waterborne diseases, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London, pp 523–527

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Yates MV (2014c) Norovirus. In: Percival SL, Yates MV, Williams DW, Chalmers RM, Gray NF (eds) Microbiology of waterborne diseases, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London, pp 515–522

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Yi L, Jiao W, Chen X, Chen W (2011) An overview of reclaimed water reuse in China. J Environ Sci-china 23:1585–1593

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang K, Farahbakhsh K (2007) Removal of native coliphages and coliform bacteria from municipal wastewater by various wastewater treatment processes: implications to water reuse. Water Res 41:2816–2824

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the strategic China-Japan Joint Research Program on “S&T for Environmental Conservation and Construction of a Society with Less environmental Burden” (NSFC Grant No. 51021140002) and Program for Innovative Research Team in Shaanxi (PIRT) (Grant No. 2013KCT-13). The authors also acknowledge the support of Projects for Science and Technology in Xi’an (CX12160).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an, 710055, China

    Jinhong Zhou, Xiaochang C. Wang, Zheng Ji, Limei Xu & Zhenzhen Yu

Authors
  1. Jinhong Zhou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Xiaochang C. Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Zheng Ji
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Limei Xu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Zhenzhen Yu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xiaochang C. Wang.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zhou, J., Wang, X.C., Ji, Z. et al. Source identification of bacterial and viral pathogens and their survival/fading in the process of wastewater treatment, reclamation, and environmental reuse. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 31, 109–120 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-014-1770-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-014-1770-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation