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Cytotoxic, phytotoxic, and mutagenic appraisal to ascertain toxicological potential of particulate matter emitted from automobiles

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Abstract

Vehicular air pollution is a mounting health issue of the modern age, particularly in urban populations of the developing nations. Auto-rickshaws are not considered eco-friendly as to their inefficient engines producing large amount of particulate matter (PM), thus posing significant environmental threat. The present study was conducted to ascertain the cytotoxic, phytotoxic, and mutagenic potential of PM from gasoline-powered two-stroke auto-rickshaws (TSA) and compressed natural gas-powered four-stroke auto-rickshaws (FSA). Based on the increased amount of aluminum quantified during proton-induced X-ray emission analysis of PM from TSA and FSA, different concentrations of aluminum sulfate were also tested to determine its eco-toxicological potential. The MTT assay demonstrated significant (p < 0.001) dose-dependent cytotoxic effects of different concentrations of TSA, FSA, and aluminum sulfate on BHK-21 cell line. LC50 of TSA, FSA, and aluminum sulfate was quantified at 16, 11, and 23.8 μg/ml, respectively, establishing PM from FSA, a highly cytotoxic material. In case of phytotoxicity screening using Zea mays, the results demonstrated that all three tested materials were equally phytotoxic at higher concentrations producing significant reduction (p < 0.001) in seed germination. Aluminum sulfate proved to be a highly phytotoxic agent even at its lowest concentration. Mutagenicity was assessed by fluctuation Salmonella reverse mutation assay adopting TA100 and TA98 mutant strains with (+S9) and without (−S9) metabolic activation. Despite the fact that different concentrations of PM from both sources, i.e., TSA and FSA were highly mutagenic (p < 0.001) even at lower concentrations, the mutagenic index was higher in TSA. Data advocate that all tested materials are equally ecotoxic, and if the existing trend of atmospheric pollution by auto-rickshaws is continued, airborne heavy metals will seriously affect the normal growth of local inhabitants and increased contamination of agricultural products, which will amplify the dietary intake of the toxic elements and could result in genetic mutation or long-term health implications.

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Acknowledgment

This work was supported by a grant from the Higher Education Commission, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Abdul Qadir Jilani Road, Lahore, 54600, Pakistan

    Khaleeq Anwar & Muhammad Ashraf

  2. Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Neurology Unit, Stroke Research Group, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

    Sohail Ejaz

  3. Microbiology Section, Quality Operations Laboratory, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

    Imran Altaf

  4. Department of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

    Aftab Ahmad Anjum

Authors
  1. Khaleeq Anwar
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  2. Sohail Ejaz
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  3. Muhammad Ashraf
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  4. Imran Altaf
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  5. Aftab Ahmad Anjum
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Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Sohail Ejaz or Muhammad Ashraf.

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Responsible editor: Thomas Braunbeck

Khaleeq Anwar, Sohail Ejaz, and Muhammad Ashraf contributed equally to this work.

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Anwar, K., Ejaz, S., Ashraf, M. et al. Cytotoxic, phytotoxic, and mutagenic appraisal to ascertain toxicological potential of particulate matter emitted from automobiles. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20, 4817–4830 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-1431-x

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-1431-x

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