Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Performance of three small-scale wastewater treatment plants. A challenge for possible re use

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The study focused on the assessment of the performance of three WWTPs in Greece by the estimation of the microbiological and chemical quality of influent and effluent sewage. Physicochemical parameters were recorded (temperature, pH, COD, BOD, suspended solids, conductivity), and meteorological data were collected (air temperature, rain). Microbiological parameters were analyzed (Escherichia coli, total coliforms, bacteriophages, Salmonella, human adenoviruses, Candida, Pseudallescheria boydii, helminths, parasites Cryptosporidium ssp., and Giardia spp.). Statistically significant correlations among the various aforementioned parameters were investigated, in an attempt to propose appropriate processing performance indicators. Furthermore, the study aimed to assess current joint ministerial decision (JMD) on wastewater reuse, for irrigation purposes; to evaluate its practicability and its potential for public health protection. In the vast majority, outlet samples from all three studied WWTPs were not appropriate for irrigation reuse purposes based on BOD50 and suspended solids limit values, set by the current JMD, for both limited and unrestricted irrigation applications. Reductions for E. coli, total coliforms, and bacteriophages were found to range between 2–3, 1.5–2.5, and 2–4 log10 values, respectively. Salmonella spp. was detected in outlet sewage samples from Patra (PAT), Arachova (ARH), and Livadeia (LEV), at 23 % (3/13), 33 % (4/12), and 38 % (5/13), respectively. Molds were detected at 92.3 % (12/13), 100 % (13/13), and 91.6 % (11/12), respectively, while Candida was found at 85 % (11/13), 67 % (8/12), and 46 % (6/13). A high prevalence of Pseudallescheria boydii, in outlet samples from all studied WWTPs is an important public health issue, which underlines the need for further studies on this emerging fungal pathogen in wastewater reuse applications. Pseudallescheria boydii was found at 85 % (11/13), 67 % (8/12), and 46 % (6/13), respectively. Helminths were found in both inlet and outlet samples, of all studied WWTPs, at 100 %. Human adenoviruses, were detected at high percentages in outlet samples at 76.9 % (10/13), 92.3 % (12/13), 84.6 % (11/13), respectively, while no influence of UV irradiation was recorded on the entry and exit loads of human adenoviruses. No influence of meteorological parameters was found on the microbiological and chemical parameters, with the exception of a weak positive correlation between environmental temperature and bacteriophages. A moderate positive correlation was found between BOD and suspended solids, bacteriophages, and total coliforms, bacteriophages and E. coli, and bacteriophages and adenoviruses. A significant positive correlation was found between total coliforms and E. coli, COD and BOD, and suspended solids and COD. No correlations were proved between human pathogens and bacterial indicator parameters. Collectively, our findings underlined the unsuitability of the current JMD on wastewater reuse in Greece, or public health protection. The study is expected to support the development of a public health risk assessment model based on quantitative risk assessment on the use of treated wastewater for irrigation purposes in Greece.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Public Health Association - APHA, American Water Works Association – AWWA and Water Environment Federation – WEF, 2012. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 22nd edition, Washington, Nematodes 10750 B

  • Bofill-Mas S, Albinana-Gimenez N, Clemente-Casares P, Hundesa A, Rodriguez-Manzano J, Allard A, Calvo M, Girones R (2006) Quantification and stability of human adenoviruses and polyomavirus JCPyV in wastewater matrices. Appl Environ Microbiol 72(12):7894–7896

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Calgua B, Mengewein A, Grunert A, Bofill-Mas S, Clemente-Casares P, Hundesa A, Wyn-Jones AP, López-Pila JM, Girones R (2008) Development and application of a one-step low cost procedure to concentrate viruses from seawater samples. J Virol Methods 153(2):79–83

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cantalupo PG, Calgua B, Zhao G, Hundesa A, Wier AD, Katz JP, Grabe M, Hendrix RW, Girones R, Wang D, Pipas JM (2011) Raw sewage harbors diverse viral populations. MBio 2(5):e00180–11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carducci A, Verani M (2013) Effects of bacterial, chemical, physical and meteorological variables on virus removal by a wastewater treatment plant. Food Environ Virol 5(1):69–76

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carducci A, Morici P, Pizzi F, Battistini R, Rovini E, Verani M (2008) Study of the viral removal efficiency in a urban wastewater treatment plant. Water Sci Technol 58(4):893–897

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cortez KJ, Roilides E, Quiroz-Telles F, Meletiadis J, Antachopoulos C, Knudsen T (2008) Infections caused by Scedosporium spp. Clin Microbiol Rev 21:157–197

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dumontet S, Scopa A, Kerje S, Krovacek K (2001) The importance of pathogenic organisms in sewage and sewage sludge. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 51(6):848–860

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Espigares E, Bueno A, Espigares M, Gálvez R (2006) Isolation of Salmonella serotypes in wastewater and effluent: effect of treatment and potential risk. Int J Hyg Environ Health 209(1):103–107

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fong TT, Phanikumar MS, Xagoraraki I, Rose JB (2010) Quantitative detection of human adenoviruses in wastewater and combined sewer overflows influencing a Michigan river. Appl Environ Microbiol 76(3):715–723

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fumian TM, Vieira CB, Leite JP, Miagostovich MP (2013) Assessment of burden of virus agents in an urban sewage treatment plant in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. J Water Health 11(1):110–119

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaulke L. S. (2006) On-site wastewater treatment and reuses in Japan. Water Manag, WM2, 103–109

  • Gerardi MH, Zimmerman MC (2005) Wastewater pathogens. Wiley-Interscience, Wiley, New Jersey, pp 3–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Hachich EM, Galvani AT, Padula JA, Stoppe NC, Garcia SC, Bonanno VM, Barbosa MR, Sato MI (2013) Pathogenic parasites and enteroviruses in wastewater: support for a regulation on water reuse. Water Sci Technol 67(7):1512–1518

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hernroth BE, Conden-Hansson AC, Rehnstam-Holm AS, Girones R, Allard AK (2002) Environmental factors influencing human viral pathogens and their potential indicator organisms in the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis: the first Scandinavian report. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:4523–4533

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janda-Ulfig K, Ulfig K, Cano J, Guarro J (2008) A study of the growth of Pseudallescheria boydii isolates from sewage sludge and clinical sources on tributyrin, rapeseed oil, biodiesel oil and diesel oil. Ann Agric Environ Med 15(1):45–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez B, Drechsel P, Kone D, Bahri A, RashidSally L, Qadir M (2010) General wastewater, sludge and excreta use situation. In: Drechsel P, Scott C (eds) Wastewater irrigation and health: assessing and mitigating risks in low-income countries. Earthscan Press, London, pp 3–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Katragkou A, Dotis J, Kotsiou M, Tamiolaki M, Roilides E (2007) Scedosporium apiospermum after near-drowning. Mycoses 50:412–421

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kokkinos P, Ziros P, Meri D, Filippidou S, Kolla S, Galanis A, Vantarakis A (2011) Environmental surveillance. An additional/alternative approach for virological surveillance in Greece? Int J Environ Res Public Health 8(6):1914–1922

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koopmans M, Duizer E (2004) Foodborne viruses: an emerging problem. Int J Food Microbiol 90(1):23–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • La Rosa G, Pourshaban M, Iaconelli M, Muscillo M (2010) Quantitative real-time PCR of enteric viruses in influent and effluent samples from wastewater treatment plants in Italy. Ann Ist Super Sanita 46(3):266–273

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas FS, Therial C, Gonçalves A, Servais P, Rocher V, Mouchel JM (2014) Variation of raw wastewater microbiological quality in dry and wet weather conditions. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21(8):5318–5328

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maunula L, Kaupke A, Vasickova P, Söderberg K, Kozyra I, Lazic S, van der Poel WH, Bouwknegt M, Rutjes S, Willems KA, Moloney R, D'Agostino M, de Roda Husman AM, von Bonsdorff CH, Rzeżutka A, Pavlik I, Petrovic T, Cook N (2013) Tracing enteric viruses in the European berry fruit supply chain. Int J Food Microbiol 167(2):177–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mena KD, Gerba CP (2009) Waterborne adenovirus. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 198:133–167

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Myrmel M, Berg EM, Grinde B, Rimstad E (2006) Enteric viruses in inlet and outlet samples from sewage treatment plants. J Water Health 4(2):197–209

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naidoo S, Olaniran AO (2014) Treated wastewater effluent as a source of microbial pollution of surface water resources. Int J Environ Res Public Health 11(1):249–270

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petrinca AR, Donia D, Pierangeli A, Gabrieli R, Degener AM, Bonanni E, Diaco L, Cecchini G, Anastasi P, Divizia M (2009) Presence and environmental circulation of enteric viruses in three different wastewater treatment plants. J Appl Microbiol 106(5):1608–1617

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pina S, Puig M, Lucena F, Jofre J, Girones R (1998) Viral pollution in the environment and shellfish: human adenovirus detection by PCR as an index of human viruses. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:3376–3382

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plósz BG, Liltved H, Ratnaweera H (2009) Climate change impacts on activated sludge wastewater treatment: a case study from Norway. Water Sci Technol 60(2):533–541

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rougeron A, Schuliar G, Leto J, Sitterlé E, Landry D, Bougnoux ME, Kobi A, Bouchara JP, Giraud S (2014) Human-impacted areas of France are environmental reservoirs of the Pseudallescheria boydii/Scedosporium apiospermum species complex. Environ Microbiol. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12472

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlindwein AD, Rigotto C, Simões CM, Barardi CR (2010) Detection of enteric viruses in sewage sludge and treated wastewater effluent. Water Sci Technol 61(2):537–544

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair RG, Choi CY, Riley MR, Gerba CP (2008) Pathogen surveillance through monitoring of sewer systems. Adv Appl Microbiol 65:249–269

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spanakos G, Biba A, Mavridou A, Karanis P (2015) Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in recycled waters used for irrigation and first description of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris in Greece. Parasitol Res 114(5):1803–1810. doi:10.1007/s00436-015-4366-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sroka J, Stojecki K, Zdybel J, Karamon J, Cencek T, Dutkiewicz J (2013) Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in effluent from sewage treatment plant from eastern Poland. Ann Agric Environ Med 1:57–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele M, Odumeru J (2004) Irrigation water as source of foodborne pathogens on fruit and vegetables. J Food Prot 67(12):2839–2849

    Google Scholar 

  • Stripeli F, Pasparakis D, Velegraki A, Lebessi E, Arsenis G, Kafetzis D, Tsolia M (2009) Scedosporium apiospermum skeletal infection in an immunocompetent child. Med Mycol 47(4):441–444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tree JA, Adams MR, Lees DN (2003) Chlorination of indicator bacteria and viruses in primary sewage effluent. Appl Environ Microbiol 69(4):2038–2043

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang ZH, Yang JQ, Zhang DJ, Zhou J, Zhang CD, Su XR, Li TW (2014) Composition and structure of microbial communities associated with different domestic sewage outfalls. Genet Mol Res 13(3):7542–7552

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research has been co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund – ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program “Education and Lifelong Learning” of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) - Research Funding Program: ARCHIMEDES III. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund. We thank Dr. Stelios Kazadzis (Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development, National Observatory of Athens), for the provision of UV ozone monitoring instrument daily satellite data.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, Patras, Greece

    P. Kokkinos, D. Kampa & A. Vantarakis

  2. Department of Medical Laboratories, Technological Educational Institution of Athens, Athens, Greece

    A. Nikolaidou, A. Christopoulou, G. Kamizoulis & A. Mavridou

  3. Department of Public and Social Health, Technological Educational Institution of Athens, Athens, Greece

    P. Theodoratos

  4. Department of Microbiology, National School of Public Health, Alexandras Ave., Athens, Greece

    G. Mandilara

  5. Mycology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

    A. Velegraki

  6. Department of Public Health and Environmental Hygiene, Viotia Regional Division, Region of Central Greece, Livadia, Greece

    A. Blougoura

  7. EYDAP, Athens, Greece

    E. Smeti

Authors
  1. P. Kokkinos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. G. Mandilara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. A. Nikolaidou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. A. Velegraki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. P. Theodoratos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. D. Kampa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. A. Blougoura
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. A. Christopoulou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. E. Smeti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. G. Kamizoulis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. A. Vantarakis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. A. Mavridou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to A. Vantarakis.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kokkinos, P., Mandilara, G., Nikolaidou, A. et al. Performance of three small-scale wastewater treatment plants. A challenge for possible re use. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22, 17744–17752 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4988-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4988-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation