Text signals influence second language expository text comprehension: knowledge structure analysis

Abstract

This quasi-experimental investigation describes the influence of text signals on second language expository science text comprehension. In two course sections, mixed proficiency Korean English language learners (n = 88) read one of two print-based English expository text passage versions. Participants in one section (n = 44) were given a version with interesting but non-important subtopics (NIS) underlined, while participants in the other section (n = 44) were given an alternate version with the same number of substantively important subtopics (SIS) underlined. Participants read the text passage and created a visual map of the text, and then completed a comprehension posttest that measured global inferences (all in English). Analysis of variance of the comprehension posttest data revealed significant differences for the two main factors, proficiency level (Low or High) and text signal condition (NIS or SIS), and for the interaction of proficiency and text signal condition; with Cohen effect sizes, d = Low-NIS (.16) < High-NIS (.56) < Low-SIS (.74) < High-SIS (1.37). Descriptively, both headings and important subtopic terms predominated in the SIS maps, but only non-important subtopic terms and not headings predominated in the NIS maps. Further, the visual map forms, as measured by vector pattern matching and by graph centrality, were also substantially different. Compared to the NIS maps, on average the SIS map forms were more relational and more like the expert’s map, while the NIS map forms were more linear, and showed a primacy effect. These results suggest that coherent text signals in these print-based readings strongly influenced bilinguals’ science expository text comprehension.

Appendix

The Cave of Lascaux text passage with the NIS terms shown within brackets and SIS terms shown with underlines.

Lascaux Cave Paintings

In Southwest France in the 1940s, playing children discovered Lascaux Grotto, a series of [narrow cave chambers] that contain huge prehistoric paintings of animals. Many of these beasts are as large as 16 feet (almost 5 meters). Some follow each other in solemn parades, but others swirl about, sideways and upside down. The animals are bulls, wild horses, reindeer, bison, and mammoths outlined with charcoal and painted mostly in reds, yellow, and browns. Scientific analysis reveals that the colors were derived from ocher and other iron oxides ground into a fine powder. Methods of applying color varied: some colors were brushed or smeared on rock surfaces and others were blown or sprayed. It is possible that [tubes made from animal bones] were used for spraying because hollow bones, some stained with pigment, have been found nearby.

One of the most puzzling aspects of the paintings is their location. Other rock paintings—for example, those of Bushmen in South Africa—are either located [near cave entrances or completely in the open]. Cave paintings in France and Spain, however, are in recesses and caverns far removed from original cave entrances. This means that artists were forced to work in cramped spaces and without sources of natural light. It also implies that whoever made them did not want them to be easily found. Since [cave dwellers normally lived close to entrances], there must have been some reason why so many generations of Lascaux cave dwellers hid their art.

Migration Opinion

Scholars offer three related but different opinions about the mysterious origin and significance of these paintings. One opinion is that the paintings were a record of seasonal migrations made by herds. Because some paintings were made directly over others overpainting, obliterating them, it is probable that a painting’s value ended with the migration it pictured. Unfortunately, this explanation fails to explain the hidden locations, unless the migrations were celebrated with [secret ceremonies].

Hunting Opinion

Another opinion is that the paintings were directly related to hunting and were an essential part of a special preparation ceremony. This opinion holds that the pictures and whatever ceremony they accompanied were an ancient method of psychologically motivating hunters. It is conceivable that before going hunting the hunters would draw or study pictures of animals and imagine a successful hunt. Considerable support exists for this opinion because several animals in the pictures are wounded by arrows and spears. This opinion also attempts to solve the overpainting by explaining that an animal’s picture had no further use after the hunt.

Ceremonial Opinion

A third opinion takes psychological motivation much further into the realm of tribal ceremonies and mystery: the belief that certain animals assumed mythical significance as ancient ancestors or protectors of a given tribe or clan. Two types of images substantiate this theory: the strange, indecipherable geometric shapes that appear near some animals, and the few drawings of men. Wherever men appear they are crudely drawn and their bodies are elongated and rigid. Some men are in a prone position and some have bird or animal heads. Advocates for this opinion point to reports from people who have experienced a trance state, a highly suggestive state of low consciousness between waking and sleeping. Uniformly, these people experienced weightlessness and the sensation that their bodies were being stretched lengthwise. Advocates also point to people who believe that the forces of nature are inhabited by spirits, particularly shamans who believe that an animal’s spirit and energy is transferred to them while in a trance. One Lascaux narrative picture, which shows [a man with a birdlike head] and a wounded animal, would seem to lend credence to this third opinion, but there is still much that remains unexplained. For example, where is the proof that the man in the picture is a shaman? He could as easily just be a hunter wearing a headmask. Many tribal hunters, including some (Native Americans), camouflaged themselves by wearing animal heads and hides.

Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. Certainly a great art exists, and by its existence reveals that ancient human beings were not without intelligence, skill, and sensitivity.

The four headings

Lascaux cave paintings, Migration opinion, Hunting opinion, Ceremonial opinion.

The seven non-important subtopic terms (NIS)

Narrow cave, tubes, near entrances, cave dwellers, secret ceremonies, birdlike head, and Native Americans.

The seven important subtopic terms (SIS)

Paintings of animals, puzzling, location, overpainting, motivation, mystical significance, and shamans.

The eight unsignaled terms

Intelligent, ancient human, arrow and spear, trance state, France and Spain, children, and hidden (in order from high to low frequency).