Abstract
A combined survey including infrared thermography (IRT) and field-laboratory tests were conducted to analyze the thermal responses and thermal properties of loess on a landslide-prone loess slope in the Heifangtai terrace in Northwest China aiming at preliminarily demonstrating the potential of IRT as a complementary technique to the investigation of irrigation-induced loess landslides. Multitemporal thermographic surveys corresponding to various solar radiation intensities during the afternoon were carried out on the landslide-prone loess slope. Accordingly, the spatiotemporal distribution of the thermal responses within the observed slope surface was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. Meanwhile, field and laboratory investigations were also performed on the thermal properties of different landslide materials. The results indicate that loess, a landslide-prone deposit that usually has a relatively high water content, exhibits different thermal properties and anomalies, including a lower surface temperature and greater thermal inertia, compared to surrounding zones without landslides. The groundwater table and corresponding seepage line could also be obtained by determining the potential boundary between the thermal response distribution of landslide scarps and that of saturated deposits in the presence of landslides. The results of these investigations are expected to provide insight for future endeavors combining infrared thermography with other efficient survey methodologies (e.g., InSAR, which can monitor the active displacement of a loess slope) to evaluate the activity of this kind of excessive irrigation-induced loess landslide.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Araiba K (2005) Remote sensing of discharge of groundwater in collapsed slope by means of infrared thermal imaging. J of the Jpn Landslide Soc 42(1): 34–39. https://doi.org/10.3313/jls.42.34
Colesanti C, Wasowski J (2006) Investigating landslides with space-borne synthetic aperture radar (sar) interferometry. Eng Geol 88(3): 173–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2006.09.013
Cruden DM, Varnes DJ (1996) Landslides: investigation and mitigation-Chapter 3: landslide types and processes. Transportation Research Board, U.S. National Academy of Sciences, Special Report 247: 36–75.
Cui SH, Pei XJ, Wu HY, et al. (2018) Centrifuge model test of an irrigation-induced loess landslide in the Heifangtai loess platform, Northwest China. J Mt Sci 15(1): 130–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-017-4490-0
Fan XM, Xu Q, Scaringi G, et al. (2017) A chemo-mechanical insight into the failure mechanism of frequently occurred landslides in the Loess Plateau, Gansu Province, China. Eng Geol 228: 337–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.09.003
FLIR (2014) User’s manual. Publication No. T559795.
Frodella W, Gigli G, Morelli S, et al. (2017) Landslide mapping and characterization through Infrared Thermography (IRT): suggestions for a methodological approach from some case studies. Remote Sens 9(12): 1281. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9121281
Frodella W, Elashvili M, Spizzichino D, et al. (2020a) Combining InfraRed Thermography and UAV Digital Photogrammetry for the protection and conservation of rupestrian cultural heritage sites in Georgia: a methodological application. Remote Sens 12(5): 892. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12050892
Frodella W, Lazzeri G, Moretti S, et al. (2020b) Applying Infrared Thermography to soil surface temperature monitoring: case study of a high-resolution 48 h survey in a vineyard (Anadia, Portugal). Sensors 20(9): 2444. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20092444
Frodella W, Elashvili M, Spizzichino D, et al. (2021) Applying close range non-destructive techniques for the detection of conservation problems in rock-carved cultural heritage sites. Remote Sens 13(5): 1040. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13051040
Fruneau B, Achache J, Delacourt C (1996) Observation and modelling of the Saint-Etienne-de-Tinée landslide using SAR interferometry. Tectonophysics 265(3–4): 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(96)00047-9
Gigli G, Frodella W, Garfagnoli F, et al. (2014) 3-D geomechanical rock mass characterization for the evaluation of rockslide susceptibility scenarios. Landslides 11(1): 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0424-2
Gu TF, Zhang MS, Wang JD, et al. (2019) The effect of irrigation on slope stability in the Heifangtai Platform, Gansu Province, China. Eng Geol 248: 346–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.10.026
Guan XD, Huang JP, Guo N, et al. (2009) Variability of soil moisture and its relationship with surface albedo and soil thermal parameters over the loess plateau. Adv Atmos Sci 26(4): 692–700. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-009-8198-0
Hillel D (1998) Environmental Soil Physics. Academic Press, SanDiego, CA, USA. p 771.
Hou XK, Vanapalli SK, Li TL (2018) Water infiltration characteristics in loess associated with irrigation activities and its influence on the slope stability in Heifangtai loess highland, China. Eng Geol 234: 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.12.020
Jia DY, Wen J, Zhang TT, et al. (2016) Responses of soil moisture and thermal conductivity to precipitation in the mesa of the Loess Plateau. Environ Earth Sci 75(5): 395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5350-x
Kinoshita A, Okamoto A, Kawano T, et al. (2012) Study on the analysis of soil moisture distribution characteristics on slopes using a thermal infrared sensor. JSECE Journal 64(6): 4–12. https://doi.org/10.11475/sabo.64.6_4
Liu XJ, Zhao CY, Zhang Q, et al. (2020) Heifangtai loess landslide type and failure mode analysis with ascending and descending Spot-mode TerraSAR-X datasets. Landslides 17: 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01265-w
Martino S, Mazzanti P (2014) Integrating geomechanical surveys and remote sensing for sea cliff slope stability analysis: the Mt. Pucci case study (Italy). Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 14: 831–848. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-831-2014
Meng QK, Xu Q, Wang BC, et al. (2019) Monitoring the regional deformation of loess landslides on the Heifangtai terrace using the Sentinel — 1 time series interferometry technique. Nat Hazards 98(2): 485–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-019-03703-3
Mineo S, Pappalardo G, Rapisarda F, et al. (2015) Integrated geostructural, seismic and infrared thermography surveys for the study of an unstable rock slope in the Peloritani Chain (NE Sicily). Eng Geol 195: 225–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.06.010
Morello R (2018) Potentialities and limitations of thermography to assess landslide risk. Measurement 116: 658–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2017.11.045
Pan P, Shang YQ, Lu Q, et al. (2019) Periodic recurrence and scale-expansion mechanism of loess landslides caused by groundwater seepage and erosion. B Eng Geol Environ 78: 1143–1155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-017-1090-8
Pappalardo G, Mineo S, Perriello Zampelli S, et al. (2016) InfraRed Thermography proposed for the estimation of the Cooling Rate Index in the remote survey of rock masses. Int J Rock Mech Min 83: 182–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2016.01.010
Pappalardo G, Mineo S, Angrisani AC, et al. (2018) Combining field data with infrared thermography and DInSAR surveys to evaluate the activity of landslides: the case study of Randazzo Landslide (NE Sicily). Landslides 15: 2173–2193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-1026-9
Pappalardo G, Mineo S, Imposa S, et al. (2020) A quick combined approach for the characterization of a cliff during a post-rockfall emergency. Landslides 17: 1063–1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01338-w
Pappalardo G, Mineo S, Carbone S, et al. (2021) Preliminary recognition of geohazards at the natural reserve “Lachea Islet and Cyclop Rocks” (Southern Italy). Sustainability 13: 1082. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031082
Peng DL, Xu Q, Liu FZ, et al. (2018) Distribution and failure modes of the landslides in Heitai terrace, China. Eng Geol 236: 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.09.016
Peng DL, Xu Q, Zhang XL, et al. (2019) Hydrological response of loess slopes with reference to widespread landslide events in the Heifangtai terrace, NW China. J Asian Earth Sci 171: 259–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.12.003
Prata AJ, Caselles V, Coll C, et al. (1995) Thermal remote sensing of land surface temperature from satellites: Current status and future prospects. Remote Sens Rev 12: 175–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/02757259509532285
Qi X, Xu Q, Liu FZ (2018) Analysis of retrogressive loess flowslides in Heifangtai, China. Eng Geol 236: 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.08.028
Raspini F, Bardi F, Bianchini S, et al. (2017) The contribution of satellite SAR-derived displacement measurements in landslide risk management practices. Nat Hazards 86: 327–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2691-4
Shi XG, Xu Q, Zhang L, et al. (2019) Surface displacements of the Heifangtai terrace in Northwest China measured by X and C-band InSAR observations. Eng Geol 259: 105181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105181
Sobrino JA, Del Frate F, Drusch M, et al. (2016) Review of thermal infrared applications and requirements for future highresolution sensors. IEEE T Geosci Remote 54(5): 2963–2972. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2015.2509179
State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection (Chengdu University of Technology), News Release (2017) The second successful early warning of the Heifangtai Loess Landslide in Gansu Province. (http://en.sklgp.cdut.edu.cn/info/1181/1398.htm, accessed on 2020-06-06).
Teledyne FLIR LLC (2020) Product FLIR T610 Technical Datasheets. https://www.flir.cn/products/t610/?model=55903-3922, accessed on 2020-06-06.
Teresa Melis M, Da Pelo S, Erbì I, et al. (2020) Thermal remote sensing from UAVs: a review on methods in coastal cliffs prone to landslides. Remote Sens 12(12): 1971. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12121971
Teza G, Marcato G, Castelli E, et al. (2012) IRTROCK: a MATLAB toolbox for contactless recognition of surface and shallow weakness of a rock cliff by infrared thermography. Comput Geosci 45: 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2011.10.022
Teza G, Marcato G, Pasuto A, et al. (2015) Integration of laser scanning and thermal imaging in monitoring optimization and assessment of rockfall hazard: a case history in the Carnic Alps (Northeastern Italy). Nat Hazards 76: 1535–1549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1545-1
Vecchiotti F, Tilch N, Kociu A (2021) The use of TERRA-ASTER satellite for landslide detection. Geosciences 11(6): 258. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11060258
Wang LL, Gao ZQ, Horton R (2010) Comparison of six algorithms to determine the soil apparent thermal diffusivity at a site in the Loess Plateau of China. Soil Sci 175(2): 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1097/ss.0b013e3181cdda3f
Wasowski J, Bovenga F (2014) Investigating landslides and unstable slopes with satellite multi temporal interferometry: current issues and future perspectives. Eng Geol 174: 103–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.03.003
Wu JH, Lin HM, Lee DH, et al. (2005) Integrity assessment of rock mass behind the shotcreted slope using thermography. Eng Geol 80(1–2): 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.04.005
Xu L, Dai FC, Tham LG, et al. (2011) Field testing of irrigation effects on the stability of a cliff edge in loess, North-west China. Eng Geol 120(1–4): 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.03.007
Xu L, Qiao XJ, Wu CX, et al. (2012) Causes of landslide recurrence in a loess platform with respect to hydrological processes. Nat Hazards 64: 1657–1670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0326-y
Xu L, Dai FC, Tu XB, et al. (2014) Landslides in a loess platform, North-West China. Landslides 11: 993–1005. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0445-x
Xu L, Yan DD (2019) The groundwater responses to loess flowslides in the Heifangtai platform. B Eng Geol Environ 78: 4931–4944. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-018-01436-4
Yuan BX, Li ZH, Su ZL, et al. (2021) Sensitivity of multistage fill slope based on finite element model. Adv Civ Eng 2021: 6622936. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6622936
Zeng RQ, Meng XM, Zhang FY, et al. (2016) Characterizing hydrological processes on loess slopes using electrical resistivity tomography-A case study of the Heifangtai Terrace, Northwest China. J Hydrol 541: 742–753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.07.033
Zhang FY, Wang GH (2018) Effect of irrigation-induced densification on the post-failure behavior of loess flowslides occurring on the Heifangtai area, Gansu, China. Eng Geol 236: 111–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.07.010
Zhang S, Pei XJ, Wang SY, et al. (2019) Centrifuge model testing of a loess landslide induced by rising groundwater in Northwest China. Eng Geol 259: 105170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105170
Zhang DX, Wang GH, Luo CY, et al. (2009) A rapid loess flowslide triggered by irrigation in China. Landslides 6: 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-008-0135-2
Zhen ZL, Ma GL, Zhang HY, et al. (2019) Thermal conductivities of remolded and undisturbed loess. J Mater Civ Eng 31(2): 04018379. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002595
Zhou YF, Tham LG, Yan WM, et al. (2014) Laboratory study on soil behavior in loess slope subjected to infiltration. Eng Geol 183: 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.09.010
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41672348, 41931286, 52008246).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, H., Zhang, Dx. A combined survey to evaluate the thermal behavior of loess for a landslide-prone slope on the Heifangtai terrace in Northwest China. J. Mt. Sci. 18, 3247–3260 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-020-6643-9
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-020-6643-9