Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Facial attractiveness, symmetry, and physical fitness in young women

  • Published:
Human Nature Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study explores the evolutionary-based hypothesis that facial attractiveness (a guiding force in mate selection) is a cue for physical fitness (presumably an important contributor to mate value in ancestral times). Since fluctuating asymmetry, a measure of developmental stability, is known to be a valid cue for fitness in several biological domains, we scrutinized facial asymmetry as a potential mediator between attractiveness and fitness. In our sample of young women, facial beauty indeed indicated physical fitness. The relationships that pertained to asymmetry were in the expected direction. However, a closer analysis revealed that facial asymmetry did not mediate the relationship between fitness and attractiveness. Unexpected problems regarding the measurement of facial asymmetry are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alicke, M. D., and R. H. Smith 1987 Judgment of Physical Attractiveness: The Role of Faces and Bodies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 12:381–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alley, T. R. 1993 The Developmental Stability of Facial Attractiveness: New Longitudinal Data and a Review. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 39:265–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhasin, S., L. Woodhouse, and T. W. Storer 2001 Proof of the Effect of Testosterone on Skeletal Muscle. Journal of Endocrinology 170:27–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M., and M. Barnes 1986 Preferences in Human Mate Selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50:559–570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, P. T., P. T. Katzmarzyk, R. M. Malina, D. C. Rao, L. Pérusse, and C. Bouchard 2001 Prediction of Physical Activity and Physical Work Capacity (PWC150) in Young Adulthood from Childhood and Adolescence with Consideration of Parental Measures. American Journal of Human Biology 13:190–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. R. 1986 Measuring the Physical in Physical Attractiveness: Quasi-experiments on the Sociobiology of Female Facial Beauty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50:925–935.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. R., A. P. Barbee, and C. L. Pike 1990 What Do Women Want? Facialmetric Assessment of Multiple Motives in the Perception of Male Facial Physical Attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59:61–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. R., A. R. Roberts, A. P. Barbee, P. B. Druen, and C.-H. Wu 1995 “Their Ideas of Beauty Are, on the Whole, the Same as Ours”: Consistency and Variability in the Cross-Cultural Perception of Female Physical Attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68:261–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunkle, J. H., and P. L. Francis 1990 The Role of Facial Masculinity/Femininity in the Attribution of Homosexuality. Sex Roles 23:157–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • 1996 “Physical Attractiveness Stereotype” and the Attribution of Homosexuality Revisited. Journal of Homosexuality 30:13–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farkas, L. 1988 Age- and Sex-Related Changes in Facial Proportions. In Anthropometric Facial Proportions in Medicine, L. G. Farkas and I. R. Munro, eds. Pp. 29–56. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fine, M., and A. Asch 1988 Women with Disabilities: Essays in Psychology, Culture, and Politics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fink, B., K. Grammer, and R. Thornhill 2001 Human (Homo sapiens) Facial Attractiveness in Relation to Skin Texture and Color. Journal of Comparative Psychology 115:92–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischhoff, B. 1992 Giving Advice: Decision Theory Perspectives on Sexual Assault. American Psychologist 47:577–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, P. 1988 Human Skin Color: A Possible Relationship between Its Sexual Dimorphism and Its Social Perception. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 32:38–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., M. Lavancy, and A. McClelland 2001 Waist to Hip Ratio and Facial Attractiveness: A Pilot Study. Personality and Individual Differences 30:491–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gangestad, S. W., R. Thornhill, and R. A. Yeo 1994 Facial Attractiveness, Developmental Stability, and Fluctuating Asymmetry. Ethology and Sociobiology 15:73–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gangestad, S. W., and R. Thornhill 1997 The Evolutionary Psychology of Extrapair Sex: The Role of Fluctuating Asymmetry. Evolution and Human Behavior 18:69–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geldart, S., D. Maurer, and K. Carney 1999 Effects of Eye Size on Adults’ Aesthetic Ratings of Faces and 5-Month-Olds’ Looking Times. Perception 28:361–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grammer, K. 1995 Signale der Liebe. Die Biologischen Gesetze der Partnerschaft. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grammer, K., and R. Thornhill 1994 Human (Homo sapiens) Facial Attractiveness and Sexual Selection: The Role of Symmetry and Averageness. Journal of Comparative Psychology 108:233–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groce, N. E. 1997 Women with Disabilities in the Developing World. Journal of Disability Policy Studies 8:178–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haag, H. 1981 Fitness Tests. Schorndorf: Hofmann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hahn, H. 1990 The Social Component of Sexuality and Disability: Some Problems and Proposals. In Perspectives on Disability, M. Nagler, ed. Pp. 343–351. Palo Alto: Health Markets Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale, R. W., and R. A. Mittelmark 1991 Pregnancy in the Elite and Professional Athlete: A Stepwise Clinical Approach. In Exercise in Pregnancy, R. A. Mittelmark, R. A. Wiswell, and B. L. Drinkwater, eds. Pp. 231–238. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatch, M. C., and Z. A. Stein 1991 Work and Exercise during Pregnancy: Epidemiological Studies. In Exercise in Pregnancy, R. A. Mittelmark, R. A. Wiswell, and B. L. Drinkwater, eds. Pp. 279–286. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Havranek, J. E. 1991 The Social and Individual Costs of Negative Attitudes Towards Persons with Physical Disabilities. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling 22:15–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyme, H. E. 1994 Minor Anomalies: Diagnostic Clues to Aberrant Human Morphogenesis. In Developmental Instability: Its Origins and Evolutionary Implications, T. A. Markow, ed. Pp. 309–317. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hume, D. K., and R. Montgomerie 2001 Facial Attractiveness Signals Different Aspects of “Quality” in Women and Men. Evolution and Human Behavior 22:93–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, V. S., and J. C. Oliver-Rodriguez 1997 Facial Beauty and the Late Positive Component of Event-Related Potentials. Journal of Sex Research 34:188–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, V. S., R. Hagel, M. Franklin, B. Fink, and K. Grammer 2001 Male Facial Attractiveness. Evidence for Hormone-Mediated Adaptive Design. Evolution and Human Behavior 22:251–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, B. C., A. C. Little, I. S. Penton-Voak, B. P. Tiddeman, D. M. Burt, and D. I. Perrett 2001 Facial Symmetry and Judgments of Apparent Health. Support for a “Good Genes” Explanation of the Attractiveness-Symmetry Relationship. Evolution and Human Behavior 22:417–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalick, S. M., L. A. Zebrowitz, J. H. Langlois, and R. M. Johnson 1998 Does Human Facial Attractiveness Honestly Advertise Health? Longitudinal Data on an Evolutionary Question. Psychological Science 9:8–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keating, C. F. 1985 Gender and Physiognomy of Dominance and Attractiveness. Social Psychology Quarterly 48:61–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kemper, H. C. G., W. de Vente, W. van Mechelen, and J. W. R. Twisk 2001 Adolescent Motor Skill and Performance: Is Physical Activity in Adolescence Related to Adult Physical Fitness? American Journal of Human Biology 13:180–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langlois, J. H., L. Kalakanis, A. J. Rubenstein, A. Larson, M. Hallam, and M. Smoot 2000 Maxims or Myths of Beauty? A Meta-analytic and Theoretical Review. Psychological Bulletin 126:390–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mackinnon, L. T. 2000 Overtraining Effects on Immunity and Performance in Athletes. Immunology and Cell Biology 78:502–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maes, H. H., G. P. Beunen, R. F. Vlietinck, M. C. Neale, M. Thomis, B. Vanden-Eynde, R. Lysens, J. Simons, C. Derom, and R. Derom 1996 Inheritance of Physical Fitness in 10-yr-old Twins and Their Parents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercises 28:1479–1491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mealey, L., R. Bridgstock, and G. C. Townsend 1999 Symmetry and Perceived Facial Attractiveness: A Monozygotic Co-twin Comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76:151–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meerdink, J. E., C. P. Garbin, and D. W. Leger 1990 Cross-gender Perceptions of Facial Attributes and Their Relation to Attractiveness: Do We See Them Differently Than They See Us? Perception and Psychophysics 48:227–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehrabian, A., and J. S. Blum 1997 Physical Appearance, Attractiveness, and the Mediating Role of Emotions. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social 16:20–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Møller, A. P., and R. Thornhill 1998 Bilateral Symmetry and Sexual Selection: A Meta-analysis. American Naturalist 151:174–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mueser, K. T., B. S. Grau, S. Sussman, and A. J. Rosen 1984 You’re Only as Pretty as You Feel: Facial Expression as a Determinant of Physical Attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46:469–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakamura, E., T. Moritani, and A. Kanetaka 1998 Further Evaluation of Physical Fitness Age Versus Physiological Age in Women. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 78:195–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nordstrom, D. L., C. Zwerling, A. M. Stromquist, L. F. Burmeister, and J. A. Merchant 2001 Epidemiology of Unintentional Adult Injury in a Rural Population. Journal of Trauma Injury, Infection and Critical Care 51:758–766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, A. R., and C. Strobeck 1986 Fluctuating Asymmetry: Measurement, Analysis, Patterns. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 17:392–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pashler, H. 1990 Coordinate Frame for Symmetry Detection and Object Recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 16:150–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penton-Voak, I., D. I. Perrett, D. L. Castles, T. Kobayashi, D. M. Burt, L. K. Murray, and R. Minamisawa 1999 Menstrual Cycle Alters Face Preference. Nature 399:741–742.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perkiö-Mäkelä, M. M. 2000 Finnish Farmers’ Self-reported Morbidity, Work Ability, and Functional Capacity. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine 7:11–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrett, D. I., K. J. Lee, I. Penton-Voak, D. Rowland, S. Yoshikawa, D. M. Burt, S. P. Henzi, D. L. Castles, and S. Akamatsu 1998 Effects of Sexual Dimorphism on Sexual Attractiveness. Nature 394:884–887.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickett, W., R. J. Brison, H. Niezgoda, and M. L. Chipman 1995 Nonfatal Farm Injuries in Ontario: A Population-Based Survey. Accident Analysis and Prevention 27:425–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pittenger, J. B., L. S. Mark, and D. F. Johnson 1989 Longitudinal Stability of Facial Attractiveness. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 27:171–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Priebe, H. 1976 The Changing Role of Agriculture, 1920–1970. In The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Part Two: The 20th Century, T. A. Markow, ed. Pp. 403–442. London: Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reis, V. A., and D. W. Zaidel 2001 Functional Asymmetry in the Human Face: Perception of Health in the Left and Right Sides of the Face. Laterality 6:225–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, G., F. Proffitt, J. M. Grady, and A. Sumich 1998 Facial Symmetry and the Perception of Beauty. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 5:659–669.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, G., L. A. Zebrowitz, A. Clark, S. M. Kalick, A. Hightower, and R. McKay 2001 Do Facial Averageness and Symmetry Signal Health? Evolution and Human Behavior 22:31–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rikowski, A., and D. Grammer 1998 Human Body Odour, Symmetry and Attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society London B 266:869–874.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheib, J. E., S. W. Gangestad, and R. Thornhill 1999 Facial Attractiveness, Symmetry and Cues of Good Genes. Proceedings of the Royal Society London B 266:1913–1917.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shackelford, T. K., and R. J. Larsen 1997 Facial Asymmetry as an Indicator of Psychological, Emotional, and Physiological Distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72:456–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • 1999 Facial Attractiveness and Physical Health. Evolution and Human Behavior 20:71–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slater, A., C. von der Schulenburg, E. Brown, M. Badenoch, G. Butterworth, S. Parsons, and C. Samuels 1998 Newborn Infants Prefer Attractive Faces. Infant Behavior and Development 21:345–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparacino, J. 1980 Physical Attractiveness and Occupational Prestige among Male College Graduates. Psychological Reports 47:1275–1280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, S., K. T. Mueser, B. W. Grau, and P. R. Yarnold 1983 Stability of Females’ Facial Attractiveness during Childhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44:1231–1233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swaddle, J. P., and I. C. Cuthill 1995 Asymmetry and Human Facial Attractiveness: Symmetry May Not Always Be Beautiful. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 261:111–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Symons, D. 1995 Beauty Is in the Adaptations of the Beholder: The Evolutionary Psychology of Human Female Sexual Attractiveness. In Sexual Nature, Sexual Culture, P. R. Abramson and S. D. Pinkerton, eds. Pp. 80–118. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., and S. W. Gangestad 1993 Human Facial Beauty: Averageness, Symmetry, and Parasite Resistance. Human Nature 4:237–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., and K. Grammer 1999 The Body and Face of Woman: One Ornament That Signals Quality? Evolution and Human Behavior 20:105–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., and A. P. Møller 1997 Developmental Stability, Disease and Medicine. Biological Review 72:497–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tooby, J., and I. DeVore 1987 The Reconstruction of Hominid Behavioral Evolution through Strategic Modeling. In The Evolution of Human Behavior, W. G. Kinzey, ed. Pp. 183–237. New York: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Valen, L. 1962 A Study of Fluctuating Asymmetry. Evolution 16:125–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, S. C., and D. C. McKenzie 1987 Cardiorespiratory Fitness during Pregnancy and Its Effect on Outcome. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8:79–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zebrowitz, L. A., and J. M. Montepare 1992 Impressions of Babyfaced Individuals across the Life Span. Developmental Psychology 28:1143–1152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zebrowitz, L. A., L. Voinescu, and M. A. Collins 1996 "Wide-eyed" and "Crooked-faced": Determinants of Perceived and Real Honesty across the Life Span. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22: 1258–1269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zerssen, D. 1976 Beschwerden Liste (B-L). Weinheim: Beltz Testgesellschaft.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychologisches Institut, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Wilhelm-Raabe-Str. 43, D-09120, Chemnitz, Germany

    Johannes Hönekopp

  2. Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Germany

    Tobias Bartholomé

  3. Christoph Dornier Klinik, Germany

    Gregor Jansen

Authors
  1. Johannes Hönekopp
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tobias Bartholomé
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gregor Jansen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Johannes Hönekopp.

Additional information

Johannes Hönekopp graduated in 1996 from Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster with a degree in psychology and earned a Ph.D. from the University of Paderborn in 2001 with a thesis about decision making under uncertainty. In 1999–2001 he was a research assistant at WWU Münster. Since 2001 he has been a research assistant at Technische Universität Chemnitz. He is the head of a DGF-funded project on facial attractiveness and sex hormones.

Tobias Bartholomé is a researcher at Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität in Münster, Germany. He received his diploma in psychology in 2001 with a thesis on the perception of facial attractiveness. In his Ph.D. work he focuses on the effects of new media on the acquisition and use of robust and flexible conceptual knowledge. His current research interests encompass perception of facial attractiveness, knowledge acquisition through learning with multiple representations, development and evaluation of interactive learning environments, as well as help-seeking within interactive learning environments.

Gregor Jansen studied philosophy and psychology at Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster. He received his diploma in psychology in 2001 with a thesis on the perception of facial attractiveness. Since then he has been working as a clinical psychologist at Christoph-Dornier-Klinik für Psychotherapie and at Niedersächsisches Landeskrankenhaus Osnabrück.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hönekopp, J., Bartholomé, T. & Jansen, G. Facial attractiveness, symmetry, and physical fitness in young women. Hum Nat 15, 147–167 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-004-1018-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-004-1018-4

Key words

Search

Navigation