Abstract
In order to convey limited underground water in deserts or arid regions, Persians have developed the qanat system for transferring water over long distances for drinking and agriculture purposes. Qanats transfer underground water to the surface from aquifers of mountainous or flat regions through one or more manmade tunnels. Water flows inside the tunnels with a gentle slope that provides gravitational flow of underground water. Water flows along the radius of an alluvial fan, which extends upslope until the water table of the region is tapped and emerges at the down slope end to the surface opening of the qanat. The demands placed upon natural ground water resources have become excessive, therefore many countries believe in the qanat system of water transfer. This study explores qanat history, development, geographical partition, rules and technical issues.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agarwal A (1999) Water and sanitation for all. Earthscan Press Briefing Document No 22, Earth scan, London, p 50
Al-Isamily H, Probert D (1998) Water-resource facilities and management strategy for Oman. Appl Energy 61:125–146
Al-Marshudi AS (2007) The falaj irrigation system and water allocation markets in northern Oman. Agric water manag 91(1–3):71–77
Anthony S (1953) Blind white fish in Persia. George Allen and Unwin, London
Ayhan M, Topal E (2005) Excavation and support design of the Diclee Kralkizi water tunnel: an overview. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 20:81–87
Bahadori MN (1978) Passive cooling systems in Iranian architecture. International Solar energy Society, San Francisco, USA. Sci Am 238(2):144–154
Bahmani O (2005) Qanat: an appropriate system for improvement of water harvesting. International conference on qanat, Kerman, Iran
Beaumont P (1971) Qanat system in Iran. Bull Int Assoc Sci Hydrol 16:39–50
Beaumont P, Bonine M (2002) Kanats, Kariz, Khattara. Traditional water system in Middle East and North Africa. School of Oriental and African Studies, London
Boehnke W et al (1984) The feasibility of using renewable energies in the Sultanate of Oman. Sultanate of Oman, Muscat
Bouchekima B, Bechki D, Bouguettaia H, Boughali S, Meftah MT (2008) The underground brackish waters in south Algeria: potential and viable resources. 13th IWRA World Water Congress, Montpellier, France. 1–4 September
Boustani F (2008) Sustainable water utilization in arid region of Iran by qanats. World Acad Sci, Eng Technol 43:213–216
Costa PM, Wilkinson TJ (1987) The hinterland of Sohar: archaeological surveys and excavations within the region of an Omani sea-faring city. J Omani Stud. Sultanate of Oman. Minist Natl Herit Cult 9:35–38
Cressey GB (1958) Qanats, Karez, and Foggaras. Geogr Rev 1:27–44
Doyel W et al. (1984) The hydrology of the Sultanate of Oman, a preliminary assessment, Sultanate of Oman. Public Authority for Water-Resources
Dutton R (1995) Towards a secure future for the Aflaj in Oman. Conference proceedings water-resources management in arid countries, vol 2. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, pp 16–24
ECA-NA (2005) National reports on the development of water resources (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Sudan, Tunisia) prepared in the framework of devising of the regional report
English, PW (1968) The origin and spread of qanats in the Old World. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol 112. USA, pp 170–181
Farhadi HR, Khanjani MJ (2005) Qanat hydraulic-wet tunnel parallel to the groundwater movement direction. Proceeding of the second international conference on qanat, Kerman, Iran
Garbrecht G (1983) Ancient water works—lessons from history. Impacts of science on society, vol 1. UNESCO, p 10
Ghali S (2008) Save Nile, and under ground water in Egypt. www.changemakers.com, Mar 25
Goldsmith E, Hildyard N (1984) The social and environmental effects of large dams. Qanats of Iran, vol 1. Wade Bridge Ecological Centre, Cornwall, UK
Haeri MR (2003) Kariz (Qanat); an eternal friendly system for harvesting groundwater. Adaptation Workshop, New Delhi, India
Karamouz M, Vasiliadis H (1992) A Bayesian stochastic optimization of reservoir operation using uncertain forecast. Water Resour Res 28(5):1221–1232
Kerachian R, Karamouz M (2007) A stochastic conflict resolution model for water quality management in reservoir–river systems. Adv Water Resour 30:866–882
Khanjani MJ, Kamyab-Moghaddas R, Taraz H, Farhadi AR (2005a) Kerman’s qanats excavation components analysis. International conference on qanat, Kerman, Iran
Khanjani MJ, Kamyab Moghaddas R, Taraz H, Farhadi AR (2005b) Kerman’s qanats discharges analysis. International conference on qanat, Kerman, Iran
Kheirabadi M (1991) Iranian cities: formation and development. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-78517-8
Labadie JW (2004) Optimal operation of multi-reservoir systems: state-of the-art review. J Water Resour Plan Manag, ASCE 130(2):93–111
Lendering J (2010) Qanat. www.livius.org
Mehrabi R (2010) Qanat. www.destinationiran.com
Motiee H (2007) www.ucm.es
Motiee H et al (2006) Assessment of the contributions of traditional qanats in sustainable water resources management. Int J Water Resour Dev 22(4):575–588
Mousavi SJ, Karamouz M, Menhaj MB (2004) Fuzzy-state stochastic dynamic programming for reservoir operation. J Water Resour Plan Manag, ASCE 130(6):460–470
Mustafa D (2007) Transition from karez to tubewell irrigation: development, modernization, and social capital in Balochistan, Pakistan. World Dev 35(10):1796–1813
Nasseri A, Tabatabaie SH (2005) Application of geophysical methods in exploitation of qanat. International conference on qanat, Kerman, Iran
Pazwash H (1983) Iran’s modes modernization: greeting the desert, deserting the greenery. Civil engineering. pp 48–51
Saffari M (2005) Iran: land of qanats. International conference on qanat, Kerman, Iran
Salih A (2006) Qanats a unique groundwater management tool in arid Regions: the case of Bam region in Iran. International symposium on ground water sustainability (ISGWAS). Alicante, Spain, pp 79–87
Sankaran Nair V (2004) Etymological conduit to the land of qanat. www.boloji.com/environment, Aug 15
Sustainable development and water resources in Egypt (2006) SIS Publications. (Motiee H et al. 2006)
The 153 Club Newsletters (2007) Reprinted from Curr world Archaeol 112:14–19
United Nations (2006) Water environment and sustainable development in north Africa. Economic Commission for Africa, Rabat, Morocco
Vazifedoust M (2007) Development of an agricultural drought assessment system integration of agrohydrological modelling, remote sensing and geographical information. Dissertation Ph D thesis. Wegeningen University. ISBN: 978-90-8504-797-1
Walther C (2009) Reviving traditional knowledge for sustainable management of natural resources. UNESCO-UNEP. Induction Training, World Heritage Nomination Process of the Iraqi Marshlands. http://marshlands.unep.or.jp/includes/file
Wessels J, Hoogeveen RJA (2002) UNU-UNESCO-ICARDA international workshop. Alexandria, Egypt, pp 21–25
Wind Electric Water Pumping (1999) Wind generated electricity project in Naima Commune. Naima Commune, Morocco
Wulff HE (1968a) The qanats of Iran. Sci Am 218(4):94
Wulff HE (1968b) The traditional crafts of Persia: their development and technology
Wuttmann M (2001) The qanats of Ayn-Manâwîr. Kharga Oasis, Egypt, p 1
Yazdani MR, Sattar MM, Rahnama F (2005) Application of underground dams for groundwater aquifer recharge and control of qanat water. International conference on qanat, Kerman, Iran
Acknowledgments
The author gratefully acknowledges helpful comments and suggestions of Prof. Johan Tempelhoff, Prof. Kate Berry and also respected reviewers for their precious comments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mostafaeipour, A. Historical background, productivity and technical issues of qanats. Water Hist 2, 61–80 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12685-010-0018-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12685-010-0018-z