The influence of groundwater currents on diffusion processes in a lake bottom: an old report reviewed

doi:10.1016/0022-1694(91)90153-9

Journal of Hydrology

Volume 126, Issues 3–4, September 1991, Pages 159-169

https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(91)90153-9 Get rights and content

Abstract

An internal report by the senior author, brought out in 1942, is presented and reviewed with the intention to show the historical developments made around 1940. The diffusion process from a clayey and saline lake bottom towards fresh supernatant water proved to be influenced by slow upward or downward groundwater currents. The deviations from the expected diffusion profiles, as observed during the period 1936–1938, could be used to find the velocities of such currents, even if they are as low as 10 mm year⁻¹. There were areas where water from the underlying Pleistocene aquifier discharged into the lake, and elsewhere lake water infiltrated to recharge the aquifier. The conclusions of the study were in accordance with the geohydrology of the area as existed at that time. The theoretical formulation was originally not in closed form, but it is shown to be equivalent to a recent analytical solution.

References (6)

C. Misra et al.
Prediction of salt transport during leaching of saline soils for reclamation
J. Hydrol.
(1989)
W.H. Van der Molen
Transport of solutes in soils and aquifers
J. Hydrol.
(1988)
R.J. Cornett
Measuring groundwater transport through lake sediments by advection and diffusion
Water Resour. Res.
(1989)

There are more references available in the full text version of this article.

Cited by (22)

Salinity management in the coastal region of the Netherlands: A historical perspective
2015, Agricultural Water Management
Citation Excerpt :
In the Middle Ages, the inland lake gradually evolved into the Zuiderzee, which stood in open connection with the North Sea. Up to about 1600 the Zuiderzee was only slightly brackish and it is reasonable, following Volker and Van der Molen (1991), to take the year 1638 as the starting point of the salinization of the sediments of the Zuiderzee. The 1916 Zuiderzee Storm Flood led to an intensive monitoring of the salinity status of the Waterland and Anna Paulowna polders in North Holland by agricultural engineers C. Nobel and Sikke Smeding (1889–1967) (Smeding, 1919–1920, 1921; Nobel, 1921).
In coastal regions of the Netherlands, various aspects of salinity were recognized and dealt with throughout history: causes of salinization and sodification, desalinization, soil structure deterioration and rehabilitation, crop salt tolerance/intolerance, and soil and crop management. Originally, experience of water managers and farmers formed the basis. From 1850 onward, first mainly chemical analysis, later combined with physico-chemical concepts, and still later also analyses of flow and transport processes, and plant physiology were used to transform traditional opinions into scientific understanding. In the 20th century, salinization and sodification arose from natural floods (1906, 1916, 1953) and strategic wartime inundations (1939/1940, 1944/1945), and in the context of creation of the Zuiderzee Works and the Delta Works. J.M. van Bemmelen (1830–1911) pioneered diagnosis of salinity and the study of acid sulfate soils, while D.J. Hissink (1874–1956) understood sodicity and promoted application of gypsum. These early studies were amplified, respectively, by C. Nobel and S. Smeding on monitoring salinity, by A.J. Zuur and B. Verhoeven on desalinization, by W.H. van der Molen and G.H. Bolt on ion exchange, and by K. Zijlstra and C. van den Berg on salinity tolerance/intolerance. In the period 1923–1940, the civil engineer J.P. Mazure studied seepage from saline open water into lower lying land and diffusion and convection of salts into and out of lake bottoms.
Chlorine stable isotope evidence for salinization processes of confined groundwater in southwestern Nobi Plain aquifer system, central Japan
2014, Journal of Hydrology
Citation Excerpt :
Diffusion coefficients for Cl−, DCL, in sediments varies widely from 10−12 to 10−9 m2/s in previous studies. Silty clay or sandy clay deposits have relatively high DCL (1.6–2.1 × 10−10 m2/s, till to clay, Hendry et al., 2000; 4.6 × 10−10 m2/s, fine sand to humic clayey deposits, Beekman et al., 2011; 5.7 × 10−10 m2/s, sea bottom sediments, Volker and van der Molen, 1991; 6.0 × 10−10 m2/s, silty clay till to sandy clayey silt till, Desaulniers et al., 1986; 7 × 10−10 m2/s, clay with sand, Groen et al., 2000; 1.3 × 10−9 m2/s, fresh or brackish water sediments, Eggenkamp et al., 1994). On the other hand, massive clay sediments have low DCL around 10−12 m2/s (1–5 × 10−12 m2/s, clay, Lavastre et al., 2005; 4.0–5.5 × 10−12 m2/s, clay by experimental measurement, Van Loon et al., 2003).
A confined aquifer system, isolated from modern seawater, is developed in argillaceous marine and freshwater sediments of Pliocene–Holocene age in southwestern Nobi Plain (SWNP), central Japan. A tongue of brackish confined groundwater (Cl⁻ >1000 mg/L), which extends from the shoreline of Ise Bay inland, mostly has negative δ³⁷Cl values with −0.90‰ to 0.21‰. The Cl isotopic compositions are negatively correlated with paleo seawater Cl⁻ concentrations discriminated by a Rayleigh distillation model with δ³⁴S values, while they are not correlated with either total Cl⁻ concentrations or δ³⁴S values. Furthermore, Cl⁻ concentrations from modern seawater are positively correlated with δ³⁷Cl values. In addition to these observations, diffusion model calculations suggest that paleo seawater Cl⁻ has diffused out from argillaceous marine sediments whereas modern seawater Cl⁻ has not been affected by preferential diffusion of Cl isotopes because it has migrated by advection via both an unconfined aquifer and non-pumping wells. Moreover, the brackish groundwater is characterized by an excess of Na/Cl ratio and deficits of Mg/Cl and Ca/Cl ratios compared to those predicted from simple mixing of freshwater with seawater. This would be caused by cation exchange reactions in the confined aquifer system in which groundwater is freshening after salinization by both paleo seawater and/or modern seawater.
An integrated modelling approach to reconstruct complex solute transport mechanisms - Cl and δ37Cl in pore water of sediments from a former brackish lagoon in The Netherlands
2011, Applied Geochemistry
Citation Excerpt :
The EMSD (Erosion-Mixing-Sedimentation-Diffusion) model developed to include these processes synthesizes present knowledge of geology, particularly at site D, and historical information on storm surges in the area. The results imply that Volker’s hypothesis (republished by Volker and Van der Molen, 1991) for historical transport is incomplete and incorrect with respect to geological and historical data. Simulations using depth dependent diffusion coefficients which are related to porosity changes did not improve the results.
A one-dimensional transport model was developed to reconstruct historical conservative transport of chloride and δ³⁷Cl in pore water of sediments from a former brackish lagoon in The Netherlands, an area now covered by the freshwater Lakes IJssel and Marken. Knowledge of the mechanism of historical solute transport in the sediments and environmental conditions during transport is critical in understanding observed pore water chemistry and will form a basis for simulating effects of changing environmental (climate change) conditions. The model synthesizes present knowledge of geology and historical information on storm surges in the area and takes into account processes such as erosion of sediments, mixing of pore water, sedimentation, and diffusion (EMSD). The chemistry of pore water from one particular boring in the area was found to be mainly controlled by alternating seawater and freshwater diffusion. Models with a constant (averaged) porosity (ϕ = 0.55) and tortuosity factor (τ = 0.3) showed similar results as models incorporating the measured bulk porosity variations (ϕ = 0.4–0.8) and variable tortuosity factors calculated with Archie’s law, τ = ϕ. The relatively small tortuosity factor either results from anion exclusion or from the heterogeneous build-up of the profile in which a peaty layer in the middle part may obstruct diffusion. Diffusion of ³⁵Cl⁻ was found to be 1.0017 times faster than of ³⁷Cl⁻. Seawater diffusion into the sediments started at least 400 years ago and refreshening took place since the lagoon was isolated from the sea by a dam in 1932.
Chloride transport in a recently reclaimed Dutch polder
2002, Journal of Hydrology
Knowledge about the origin of solutes is required to define reasonable limits for surface water quality. The origin of the high chloride (Cl) concentrations in the drainage water of a recently reclaimed Dutch polder is analysed. Historical data on soil formation are used to understand the layering of the soil profile and its hydraulic properties. The salinisation process of the lake bottom in the period 1600–1932 explains the Cl profiles in the soil. After reclamation in 1942, the average application rate of Cl from fertiliser was 118 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Natural Cl deposition was 37 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and average Cl crop uptake was 10 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Upward diffusion from the subsoil (>120 cm depth) of about 220 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ is the major term in the Cl mass balance. Annual Cl drain discharge is estimated at 365 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. A field monitoring study in the winter leaching period 1991–1992 showed that the Cl drain discharge was only 180 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, probably, due to the relatively small precipitation excess in that period.
The dynamics of water flow and solute transport in a two-dimensional flow domain are well described by the HYDRUS-2D model based on the Richards and Laplace equations for movement of water and the convection–dispersion equation for solute transport. The large lateral flow component towards the drain in the topsoil (0–120 cm depth) in the zone just above and below the phreatic surface explains the peaks in Cl and nitrate concentrations in the drainage water. The combination of historical data, field experiments and a simulation model was fruitful in explaining the origin and dynamics of Cl concentrations in the drainage water. The high Cl concentrations in the drainage and surface water are natural background concentrations originating mainly from the subsoil of the reclaimed polder.
Salinization processes in paleowaters in coastal sediments of Suriname: Evidence from δ<sup>37</sup>Cl analysis and diffusion modelling
2000, Journal of Hydrology
In the coastal plain of Suriname a stagnant body of fresh (<250 mg/l Cl) and moderately brackish (250–1000 mg/l Cl) groundwater of meteoric origin is found in permeable Tertiary formations. This groundwater body, formed during the last Wisconsin regression, extends offshore into deposits on the continental shelf. The authors found that this paleowater is slowly being salinized by downward solute transport from overlying Holocene marine clays and upward transport from saline Cretaceous sediments. The downward transport has been studied at two sites by relating analyses of chloride contents and ³⁷Cl/³⁵Cl isotope ratios in pore water with computer simulations of diffusive transport. Optimization of process parameters yielded an effective diffusion coefficient of $7×10^{−10} m^{2} /s$ and a fractionation factor of 1.0027, which agrees well with earlier studies. With the computer model the following periods of marine influence were found: 6000–4,100 yr BP and 10,000–500 yr BP at the sites located 20 and 3 km from the coastline, respectively. According to the diffusion model the downward flux of salts has not penetrated deeper than 100 m. Salts below this depth are thought to originate from the Cretaceous sediments. However, groundwater chloride concentration and chlorine isotope data are scarce below this depth, while uncertainty regarding the various regressions and transgressions precludes solute transport modelling. Clay layers at the base of the Tertiary appear to inhibit the upward transport by lateral dispersive mixing at the Tertiary/Cretaceous boundary. Oil reservoirs are also related to these clay seals. The presence of the seal, and perhaps the oil below, can therefore be predicted by the chloride profile in the upper 250 m.
Measurement of advective water velocity in lake sediment using natural helium gradients
1994, Journal of Hydrology
Natural helium (He) concentration profiles in the sediments of lakes at the Experimental Lakes Area in northwestern Ontario are modelled, using the advection-diffusion equation to calculate groundwater velocities. Two headwater lakes with little excess He in bottom water have sediment He concentration profiles indicating slow (2–7 cm a⁻¹) recharge of lake water to groundwater. Data from three lakes showing He enrichment in bottom water indicate groundwater seepage at some sites. Sediment He gradients in headwater Lake 239 were usually weak, although a strong gradient was found at one site. Probes located within suspected seepage areas in Lake 239 indicated groundwater discharge velocities of 3–22 cm a⁻¹. Fifth order Lake 240 had a He gradient suggesting groundwater seepage at 11–17 cm a⁻¹. Eighth-order Lake 625, a lineament basin with high He concentrations in bottom water, had very strong He gradients in sediment. One probe indicated diffusive He transport through sediment, whereas another indicated seepage at 3–6 cm a⁻¹. Direct He fluxes to the lakes, estimated from its accumulation in bottom water during summer stratification, are in reasonable agreement with fluxes calculated independently from the He gradients in sediment. Measurements of natural He gradients in lake sediment give a sensitive and reliable indication of the direction and rate of groundwater transport at velocities of 1–100 cm a⁻¹.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

Research paperThe influence of groundwater currents on diffusion processes in a lake bottom: an old report reviewed

Abstract

J. Hydrol.

J. Hydrol.

Measuring groundwater transport through lake sediments by advection and diffusion

Water Resour. Res.

Research paper
The influence of groundwater currents on diffusion processes in a lake bottom: an old report reviewed