Gypsum karstification induced subsidence: effects on alluvial systems and derived geohazards (Calatayud Graben, Iberian Range, Spain)

doi:10.1016/0169-555X(96)00004-9

Geomorphology

Volume 16, Issue 4, August 1996, Pages 277-293

https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-555X(96)00004-9 Get rights and content

Abstract

The karstification of the tertiary gypsum formations in the Calatayud Graben has given rise to synsedimentary and postsedimentary subsidence phenomena in both the Neogene sediments of the endorheic graben fill and in the Quaternary alluvial sediments deposited under exorheic conditions. In the so-called Maluenda and Perejiles areas, covering 4.4 and 12 km² respectively, the Neogene sedimentary units stratigraphically above the gypsum have subsided due to the karstification of the underlying evaporites. The maximum subsidence in both areas has reached at least 200 m. The Jalón-Jiloca-Perejiles alluvial system has been affected by karstic subsidence during its Quaternary evolution. Ten stepped alluvial levels (pediment-terrace) have been identified. As a consequence of synsedimentary karstic subsidence the deposit of an alluvial level can be locally thickened, changing in a short distance from less than 10 m to more than 100 m in thickness. Thus, the deposit of an individual terrace can be locally superimposed on the deposits of older terraces. The palaeokarst recorded in the sediments of the different alluvial levels shows how the karstic subsidence has controlled the dynamics of the sedimentary system. The alluvial karstic subsidence is currently active in the flood plains affecting fluvial channels, buildings, communication ways, irrigation ditches and the Calatayud gypsum scarp.

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Citation Excerpt :
In the latter case, the valleys in the Ebro basin are often dominated by a rapidly retreating evaporite escarpment on one valley side, which is more erodible than the floodplain deposits and thus attracts channel migration. Collapse sinkholes can be frequent on floodplains (Gustavson et al., 1982; Cooper, 1986, 1989; Gutiérrez et al., 2007; Castañeda et al., 2009; Galve et al., 2009) but they are often filled quickly anthropogenically or by floodplain deposits (Cooper, 1986; Gutiérrez, 1996; Gutiérrez et al., 2007) and may provide detailed sedimentological flood records (Gutiérrez et al., 2017). While some studies show sedimentological evidence of contact between an active river channel and sinkholes (Gutiérrez, 1996), associated processes have not been recorded to date.
Collapse sinkholes are common in areas where gypsum strata underlie rock that is incompetent to bridge the cavities created by the groundwater dissolution of gypsum. On floodplains these can be obscured due to fill by overbank deposits, and channels tend to migrate towards larger enclosed depressions. This study utilises GIS to analyse the influence exerted by small collapse sinkholes on the channel dynamics of the alluvial River Ure, UK. At Ripon Loop, a large compound meander bend, sinkhole area and channel dynamics have been tracked over >160 years from multiple datasets, including historic maps, aerial imagery, lidar and a Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry dataset acquired for this study. This indicated two distinct populations, firstly long-lived, constant-sized sinkholes and secondly dynamically growing holes aligned with the contact of bedrock and unconsolidated materials of a buried valley at depth where artesian water saturated with sulphate enters the latter. Frequent overbank flows of the River Ure across the neck of the bend have interacted with sinkholes, e.g. by deposition of bedload in the down-valley end of the holes and localised headward incision on the opposite side due to the relatively high gradient between holes and the downstream limb. The location of holes has conditioned the incision of small shallow channels over at least 7 years, before cutoff occurred over several floods in 2019. Initially overbank flow traversed the neck via the chain of sinkholes before widening and deepening of the channel captured all the surface flow of the River Ure, resulting in the mobilisation of more than 20,000 m³ of sediment. Allogenic influences on fluvial systems in relation to meander dynamics are often neglected and this study is the first to link floodplain sinkholes with detailed mechanisms of a chute cutoff, hereby indicating a potential feedback to sinkhole dissolution processes.
Sinkhole swarms from initiation to stabilisation based on in situ high-resolution 3-D observations
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We study in this paper the evolution of sinkhole fields along the Dead Sea coastal plains, from initiation to stabilisation. The prevailing hypothesis attributes their formation to the dissolution of a buried halite layer by groundwater but fails to explain their evolution in some places and their stability in others. Based on thirteen years of high-resolution laser scanning and field surveys, we trace a complete evolutionary cycle of sinkholes and show that the prevailing theory explains only the first out of a four-stage cycle. We show that following the formation stage an acceleration phase begins when the sinkholes interact with the drainage system. A deepening and spatial localisation phase ensues. Then, some parts of the field cease to expand, leading to a fourth stage of stabilisation. We further show that during their embryonic stage, sinkhole development is limited due to a lack of connectivity between the surface and subsurface hydrological processes, but as this connectivity evolves, the development rate increases up to three orders of magnitude. Moreover, observations show a high correlation with hydrological seasonality. The most active field demonstrated a development rate of 13,540 m $^{3}$ /month during the wet season, in contrast to a rate of 1010 m $^{3}$ /month during the dry season. These measurements and observations allow us to propose a new theoretical model for sinkhole swarm development, from initiation to stabilisation, with linkage to seasonality and hydrology.
Geohazards assessment of the karstified limestone cliffs for safe urban constructions, Sohag, West Nile Valley, Egypt
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Karstified rock formations are, sometimes, responsible for major hazards to urban development and to human life as well. The cartographic and descriptive inventory of karst phenomenon is a concrete contribution to the management and conservation of those areas where soluble carbonates and evaporites are present at the surface and/or in the subsurface. The present geohazards and risk assessment study concerns with the highly karstified and risky area of Sohag, west of the Nile Valley, Egypt. It is dominated by the top surface of the highly weathered and karstified Miocene Drunka Formation. This highly karstified bedrock was explored and monitored for the presence of caves and sinkholes using the ground penetrating radar ‘GPR’ and the electrical resistivity tomography ‘ERT’. The study succeeded to monitor the less hazardous areas by introducing a hazard assessment map to help in future planning for development. Finally, a panorama for the best engineering treatments is proposed in order to mitigate the hazard related to collapses linked to the presence of some paleodolines.
The present study indicated that only the areas that are located to the west and southwest of the study area, close to the mountainous areas and away from the Nile valley, are suitable for constructions.
High-resolution InSAR constraints on flood-related subsidence and evaporite dissolution along the Dead Sea shores: Interplay between hydrology and rheology
2017, Geomorphology
Citation Excerpt :
Sinkholes and gradual dissolution-induced subsidence are often interrelated, with subsidence occurring before, during and after the actual sinkhole collapse (Paine et al., 2012; Nof et al., 2013; Jones and Blom, 2014; Intrieri et al., 2015). Enhanced subsidence above subsurface evaporite layers has been observed along ancient and modern alluvial channels (Gutiérrez, 1996; Benito et al., 1998; Klimchouk and Aksem, 2005; Guerrero et al., 2008; Avni et al., 2016), due to drainage of flood water into the evaporite layers and a subsequent increase in evaporite dissolution and surface subsidence. Periods characterized by high dissolution and subsidence rates along these streambeds result in generation of local depositional basins with thickened alluvial fill (Guerrero et al., 2008) and/or reversal of flow directions (Avni et al., 2016).
Sinkhole generation and land subsidence are commonly attributed to dissolution of subsurface layers by under-saturated groundwater and formation of cavities. Along the Dead Sea (DS) shorelines, this process also involves seasonal flash floods that are drained into the subsurface by existing and newly formed sinkholes. We quantify the contribution of flash-floods to salt dissolution and land subsidence using high-resolution interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). Subsidence rates during a 3-year period (2012–2015) were calculated from 57 COSMO SkyMed X-band interferograms bracketing major flood events and intra-flood periods in 21 sinkhole sites. The sites are located within channels and alluvial fans along the western shores of the Dead Sea, Israel. The observed subsidence reaches maximum rates of ~ 2.5 mm/day, accumulating in specific sites to 500 mm/year. In most of the sinkhole sites a gradual increase in the annual subsidence rate is observed during the 3-year study period. Three different modes of response to floods were observed: (1) sites where floodwater is not directly channeled into sinkholes do not respond to floods; (2) sites adjacent to active channels with sinkholes are unaffected by specific floods but their subsidence rates increase gradually from early winter to mid-summer, and decay gradually until the following winter; and (3) sites in active channels with sinkholes are characterized by an abrupt increase in subsidence rates immediately after each flood (by a factor of up to 20) and by a subsequent quasi-exponential subsidence decay over periods of several months. In these latter sites, subsidence rates after each flood are temporally correlated with alternating groundwater levels in adjacent boreholes. The rapid rise in groundwater head following floods increases the hydraulic gradient of the under-saturated groundwater and hence also the groundwater discharge and the dissolution rate of the subsurface salt layer. A subsequent quasi-exponential water level drop results in similar deceleration in dissolution and subsidence rates, with a similar characteristic decay time of about 150 days. The observed subsidence decay pattern may also be explained by viscoelastic relaxation of the overburden in response to instantaneously-formed dissolution cavities. Utilizing a Kelvin viscoelastic model, we show that the contribution of this process is most probably < 30% of the total observed subsidence and is sensitive to the sediment mechanical properties. On a broader scale, this study demonstrates how high-resolution InSAR measurements can improve our understanding of subsurface dissolution and subsidence processes and provide independent constraints on the mechanical properties of heterogeneous alluvial sediments.
River braiding caused by rapid floodplain deformation - Insights from Holocene dynamics of the Jarama River in central Spain
2016, Quaternary International
Citation Excerpt :
It could be assumed that intensifying effects on halokinetic processes and dissolution subsidence may emanate from these tectonic structures. However, interdependencies between tectonic fault lines, high water supply due to discharge of river systems, and halokinetic deformations have often been described for Tertiary Basins on the Iberian Peninsula that are characterized by evaporitic formations (Gutiérrez, 1996, 2010; Gutiérrez et al., 2002; Guerrero et al., 2008; Lucha et al., 2012; Silva et al., 2013). Based on observations from the Ebro Basin, Lucha et al. (2012) discuss even the connection between the progressive entrenchment of a fluvial system and an increase of the load gradient between the valley margins and the valley (in terms of weight of overlying bedrock) that finally leads to a kind of salt flow towards the valley floor with intensifying effects on halokinetic deformation processes.
In this paper we will use an illustrative example to show the significance of rapid vertical movements inside floodplains as well as varying discharge values for the alteration of channel and sedimentation patterns during the Holocene. Concerning such relationships, well documented and well dated references from sedimentary records are rather rare. The developments within the lower Jarama Valley have been significantly supported by an interaction of tectonic activity, evaporite dissolution, and halokinetics that initiated rapid vertical movements over short distances and caused the formation of knick-points and gradient changes along the longitudinal floodplain profile. Furthermore, the specific Mediterranean climate caused highly variable discharges including extreme runoff peaks.
The juxtaposition of different floodplain gradients gave rise to spatial and temporal changes of discharge patterns and channel geometry, which is reflected by varying sedimentation as well as erosion patterns. We have been able to confirm that alluvial thickening due to intense dissolution and subsidence has been a characteristic and frequently recurring feature during the Pleistocene. Moreover, we want to emphasize that also during the Holocene gradient adjustments exercised controlling influence on fluvial dynamics, in particular with regard to channel response. In fact, we found consistency between low and moderate gradients and meandering single channel patterns associated with overbank deposition in distal floodplain positions. Only a section with stronger inclination revealed evidences for multiple channel discharge patterns in form of gravelly braided river deposits. In comparison with recent discharge patterns and information from historical sources it appears that braided river deposition took place just within a short time frame between 5 and 3 ka cal. BP. This matches exactly a period of strong climatic aridity including highly variable precipitation and discharge patterns. From that we conclude, that in the first instance, gradient changes promoted the change of channel and discharge patterns, but however, specific overlap of the parameters gradient and runoff is considered to have been necessary to generate braided discharge pattern. A subsequent formation of braided patterns during the Late Holocene was presumably prevented by river entrenchment as well as a strong increase of sediment availability during the time of Roman colonization.
On the basis of this study, we can establish a number of general relationships between floodplain gradient, runoff pattern, and channel response during the Holocene period that may help us to better understand fluvial behavior in various different areas.
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In tectonically active areas, the landscape response to tectonic forcing is described and possibly quantified by regional topographic and hydrographic features as well as by spatial variation in rates of surface processes. We investigated the recent landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (NE Spain), an intraplate thrust-belt formed in Cenozoic times and characterized by a dome-shaped topography. In its central sector the landscape is dominated by low relief surfaces, Late Neogene (?) in age, presently standing at an average altitude of 1300 m. A recent regional uplift controlled the organization of the present fluvial network and dissection of the landscape. In this framework we investigated the geomorphic responses to tectonic forcing by the calculation of morphometric parameters, focusing on topography (map of local relief, swath profiles) and hydrography (basin hypsometric curve and integral, basin asymmetry factor, river longitudinal profiles and relative indices), and using SRTM DEM. The results of morphometric analysis have been coupled with radiometric uranium-series dating of calcareous tufas lying on fluvial strath terraces. The obtained ages allow the estimation of incision rate along the High Tajo and Martín rivers. Our results indicate that uplift and rock-type erodibility are the main factors influencing landscape evolution of the study area. The incision rates are very similar throughout the central sector of the range, indicating that, despite subtle local variation, the rivers are responding to a main tectonic input: the regional uplift. In conclusion, the Iberian Chain landscape is in a transient state in response to a recent dome-like uplift. Indeed, the fluvial processes that weakly incised this landscape at a rate of ~ 0.6 mm/yr are approaching a radial pattern. On the basis of geological and geomorphic constraints, we hypothesize that the uplift started around or after 3 Ma.

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Research paperGypsum karstification induced subsidence: effects on alluvial systems and derived geohazards (Calatayud Graben, Iberian Range, Spain)

Abstract

Studies in fluviatile sedimentation: an exploratory quantitative model for the architecture of avulsion controlled alluvial suites

Sediment. Geol.

Fenómenos recientes de subsidencia kárstica sinsedimentaria en el Barranco de Torrecilla (Depresión del Ebro, Zaragoza)

Cuat. Geomorfol.

Geomorfología de la Cuenca Baja del río Gállego

Karst in gypsum and its environmental impact on the Middle Ebro Basin (Spain)

Modelo de respuesta compleja de las terrazas del río Gállego en el tramo Zuera-Zaragoza

Subsidence, climate change, and complex terraces of the Gállego River

Controls of sandstone body geometry and architecture in the Chinle Formation (Upper Triassic), Colorado Plateau

Sediment. Geol.

Aspectos morfológicos de la Cuenca de Calatayud-Daroca y de sus zonas marginales

Estud. Geogr.

A simulation model of alluvial stratigraphy

Sedimentology

Panorámica general del yeso en España. Los yesos de la Cubeta de Calatayud en la Provincia de Zaragoza

Tecniterrae

A collapse doline in Wood Buffalo National Park, Alberta, Canada

Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol.

Estudio del colapso de la estructura de los limos yesíferos

Rev. Obras Públicas

Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology

Towards the field classification of alluvial architecture or sequence

Controles morfométricos de los campos de dolinas en el sector central de la Cordillera Ibérica

Cuat. Geomorfol.

Geomorfología de la Región de Gallocanta (Cordillera Ibérica Central)

Criterios de clasificación morfométrica de campos de dolinas

Cuat. Geomorfol.

Research paper
Gypsum karstification induced subsidence: effects on alluvial systems and derived geohazards (Calatayud Graben, Iberian Range, Spain)