Atmospheric sulfur flux rates to and from Israel

doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(01)01089-0

Science of The Total Environment

Volume 291, Issues 1–3, 27 May 2002, Pages 143-154

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(01)01089-0 Get rights and content

Abstract

Both field measurements and model simulation studies have shown that Israel is the recipient of long range transported air pollutants that originated over various parts of Europe. The present paper presents results of aircraft measurements aimed at quantitizing the sulfur flux arriving at Israel's western coast from Europe and the Israeli pollution contribution to the air masses leaving its eastern borders towards Jordan. During the research flights, measurements of sulfur dioxide and sulfate particulates and meteorological data were recorded. Two different legs were performed for each research flight: one over the Mediterranean Sea, west of the coast and the second along the Jordan Valley. All flights were carried out at a height of approximately 300 m above ground level. A total of 14 research flights were performed covering the summer and autumn seasons. The results indicate that the influx of sulfur arriving at the Israeli coast from Europe varied in the range of 1–30 mg S/h, depending on the measuring season. The particulate sulfate level in the incoming LRT air masses was at least 50% of the total sulfur content. The contribution of the local pollutant sources to the outgoing easterly fluxes also varies strongly according to season. During the early and late summer, the Israeli sources contributed an average of 25 mg S/h to the total pollution flux as compared to only approximately 9 mg S/h during the autumn period. Synoptic analysis indicates that conditions during the summer in Israel favor the accumulation of pollution species above the Mediterranean basin from upwind European sources. This season features a shallow mixed layer and weak zonal flow leads to poor ventilation rates, inhibiting an efficient dispersion of these pollutants while being transported eastward. Under these conditions, in flux, local contribution and the total out-flux of these pollutants are elevated as opposed to during other seasons. During the fall, the eastern Mediterranean region is usually subjected to weak easterly winds, interrupted at times by strong westerly wind flows inducing higher ventilation rates. These meteorological conditions and the lack of major emitting sources eastwards of Israel result in lower sulfur budgets to and from Israel for this season. An estimate of the yearly flux showed that approximately 0.06 tg S arrived at the Israeli coast from the west. This is approximately 15% of the estimated pollution leaving Europe towards the eastern edge of the Mediterranean basin. The local contribution to the out-flux towards Jordan was calculated to be 0.13 tg S per year, almost all of the sulfur air pollutants emitted in Israel.

Introduction

Long-range transport (LRT) of air pollutants within both North America and Europe has been widely studied while almost no attention has been paid to the Eastern Mediterranean region, and especially, the region between Greece, Turkey and Israel. Al-Mormani and Aygun (1998) and Gullu et al. (1998) have recently reported measurements of particulate sulfate for a site on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. A number of studies have suggested that the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea may be influenced by relatively high levels of particulate sulfate (Luria et al., 1989, Luria et al., 1996, Benkovitz et al., 1994). An observational and modeling study has confirmed that Israel is indeed affected by the long-range transport of air pollutants originating over Europe (Wanger et al., 2000). A study by Luria et al. (1996) has shown that these long-range transported air masses arriving in Israel from the west have high sulfate content levels. While variations in wind direction are observed on a diurnal and seasonal basis depending on the synoptic conditions affecting the region, the predominant wind flows over Israel are from the west towards the east. This implies that air pollutants emitted to the west of the eastern Mediterranean will reach Israel from upwind sources and will be added to those emitted locally. Both contributions will then be advected eastward.

The local pollution sources will be limited due to the fact that Israel is a very small country although possessing a densely populated central region. Israel is situated at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea with a total area less than 22 000 km² with almost all the large urban regions and industrial and commercial activity (electricity, industry, etc.) limited to central Israel which has an area of only 7000–8000 km². The total anthropogenic annual emissions for Israel for 1996 were estimated as 0.2 tg sulfur corresponding to emission rates of approximately 21 ton per km² for central Israel (Gabbay, 1998). The Israeli contribution to total world emissions for sulfur is of the order of 0.1%.

The present study reports an attempt at quantitizing the amount of sulfur (SO₂ and SO₄²⁻) compounds reaching Israel from upwind European sources as well as the amount exiting Israel along its eastern boarder towards Jordan.

Section snippets

Experimental

Aircraft research flights were performed in an attempt to characterize air masses entering and leaving Israel. The instrument package installed in the aircraft consisted of a high sensitivity SO₂ analyzer (TEII 43S, pulsed fluorescence method, ±0.1 ppbv sensitivity), a semi-automatic sulfate aerosol sampler, together with temperature, relative humidity and pressure-altitude sensors. The aerosol sampler consisted of a five-filter holder system, facing backwards and fitted outside the aircraft so

Results

Results of airborne measurements for 29 May, 1998 are shown in Fig. 2 and are typical for the early summer period in Israel. The results are superimposed upon a map of central Israel. The figures show the pollution concentration levels for SO₂ as measured to the west of the Israeli coast and over the eastern border with Jordan. Fig. 3 shows upper airflow patterns as wind vectors for the three different aircraft measuring campaigns. As is observed in Fig. 3a for 29 May, 1998, the wind flow was

Discussion

Examination of the sulfate contribution in the incoming air masses (west) shows that it varied between 50 and 90% of the total sulfur level. For the outgoing air masses, the sulfate content dropped to approximately only 25%.

Conclusions

Based on the limited number of research flights and by extrapolating the measurements using climatological data, the flux of sulfur compounds to and from Israel was estimated. While long-range transported sulfur flux entering Israel consisted of between 50% and 90% particulate sulfate, this decreased to an average of approximately 25% in the exiting air masses. The above is consistent with the relatively slow formation and deposition rate of particulate sulfate and the fact that the incoming

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Atmospheric sulfur flux rates to and from Israel

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Experimental

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Atmos Environ

J Chromatograph

Atmos Environ

Atmos Environ

Atmos Environ

Wet deposition of major ions and trace elements in the eastern Mediterranean basin

J Geophys Res

Sulfate over the North Atlantic and adjacent continental regions: evaluation for October and November 1986 using a three-dimensional model driven by observation-derived meteorology

J Geophys Res

Anthropogenic and natural contributions to tropospheric sulfate: a global model analysis

J Geophys Res

Climatology of back trajectories from Israel based on synoptic analysis

J Climate Appl Met

The spatial and temporal behavior of the mixed layer in Israel

J Appl Meteor