Planning support systems: an inventory of current practice
Introduction
A plethora of methods and tools have been used by professional planners over many years to support their various planning activities in different contexts. Nevertheless, it can be argued that planning practitioners have never fully embraced the diversity of methods, techniques and models developed in the research laboratory to analyse spatial problems, evaluate alternative options or project future scenarios. Most geo-information tools do not readily fit the changing needs of the planning profession; they are far too generic, complex, inflexible, incompatible with most planning tasks, oriented towards technology rather than problems, and too focused on strict rationality, as documented by number of commentators including Couclelis (1989), Ottens (1990), Scholten and Stillwell (1990), Klosterman (1994), Worrall (1994), Bishop (1998), Nedovic-Budic (1998) and Geertman (1999).
Partly as a consequence of this mismatch between the demands of practitioners and the supply of methods and techniques, a new generation of novel or redeveloped tools to facilitate ‘new’ planning practice has materialised under a generic term- planning support systems (PSS). These systems include instruments relating to geo-information technology that have been primarily developed to support different aspects of the planning process, including problem diagnosis, data collection, mining and extraction, spatial and temporal analysis, data modelling, visualisation and display, scenario-building and projection, plan formulation and evaluation, report preparation, enhanced participation and collaborative decision-making. In the case of the latter—the development of support for participatory planning processes—a variety of new instruments has emerged ranging from electronic conference board rooms (group decision support systems) (Laurini, 1998) and GIS-supported collaborative decision-making tools (Nyerges & Jankowski 1997) to Web-based mediation systems for co-operative spatial planning (Gordon et al., 1997, Shiffer, 1992) and support tools for different planning tasks (Geertman, 2002a, Hopkins, 1998, Hopkins, 1999, Kammeier, 1999, Klosterman, 1999b, Singh, 1999).
Despite these developments, there remains a general lack of knowledge of and insight into the development, adoption and implementation of PSS in different planning contexts. The state-of-the-art in terms of the adoption of PSS and their real contribution in practise has remained uncertain. Therefore, in 2000 we decided to construct an inventory of PSS. This article provides insights into some of the important issues relating to the PSS contained in the inventory. It begins in Section 2 with the question of definition: what makes a PSS different from other geo-technology based systems like a geographical information system (GIS) and a spatial decision support system (SDSS)? The inventory, its context, aims and creation are discussed in Section 3. Thereafter, in Section 4, selected examples from the inventory are used to illustrate the range of applications that have been developed. Finally, Section 5 contains a number of recommendations.
Section snippets
Defining PSS
As indicated already, PSS consist of a wide diversity of geo-information tools that are dedicated to support public or private planning processes (or parts thereof) at any particular spatial scale and within a specific planning context. PSS have much in common with two other well-known systems: GIS and SDSS. So what makes a PSS different from a GIS or a SDSS?
PSS are generally regarded as systems in which technologies dedicated to the planning profession are brought together. Harris and Batty
A PSS inventory
Stillwell, Geertman, and Openshaw (1999a) provide an assessment of planning practice at the beginning of the twenty-first century from which it can be concluded that the adoption of geo-information tools is far from widespread and from being effectively integrated into the planning process. Planners and designers remain at best distrustful, and at worst downright antagonistic, toward computer-based models (Harris, 1998, Harris, 1999). From these and other studies (e.g. Brail & Klosterman, 2001
Contents of the PSS inventory
Several conclusions can be drawn from this exercise of creating an inventory that provides insights into the concept of PSS and their application in practice. Firstly, the numbers of PSS are increasing world-wide. Whilst the inventory contained approximately contributions from several different countries across the world, the PSS selected for detailed specification in Geertman and Stillwell (2003) originate from 15 different countries. Most of the PSS appear to have been developed very
Recommendations
Based on the relatively small number of real world experiences with PSS, some recommendations can be made about the future of PSS development and application. First, PSS should be an integral part of the planning process and context. The Shaping Dane Project website (http://www.lic.wisc.edu/shapingdane/) is an excellent example of where different planning and participatory activities are linked to each of the planning phases. For participants, it is important to know at which phase of the
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Max Craglia (University of Sheffield, UK), Paul Longley (University College London, UK) and the anonymous referees of CEUS for their valuable comments on an earlier version of the paper.
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