Initiation of stress-corrosion cracking in unidirectional glass/polymer composite materials
Introduction
Composite suspension insulators are commonly used in overhead transmission lines with line voltages in the range of 69–735 kV [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28]. The insulators rely on pultruded glass-fiber/polymer-matrix rods as the principle load-bearing components. There are two metal end-fittings attached to the rod and the surface of the rod is covered with a rubber housing material with multiple weathersheds. One of the major problems related to the application of composite insulators on overhead transmission lines is their mechanical failures in-service by brittle fracture. Brittle fracture of composite insulators results from stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) of the composite rod material [1], [2], [4], [5], [6], [8], [9], [10], [14], [15], [17], [19], [21], [22], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28]. SCC in an E-glass/polymer composite is a consequence of chemical attack on the fibers by an acid (either organic or inorganic) in conjunction with low mechanical tensile stresses applied along the rod axis [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37], [38]. Recently, it has been shown [24] that the brittle-fracture process in composite insulators can be caused by the in-service formation of nitric acid solutions as a result of the presence of moisture and corona discharges. If the acid penetrates the end-fitting and reaches the surface of the composite rod, a brittle-fracture process can be initiated, leading to insulator failure in service. In Fig. 1, an insulator which failed in service by brittle fracture is shown. The most typical feature of the brittle fracture failures is the presence of large planar fracture surfaces in the rods which run perpendicular to the glass fibers.
The characteristics of brittle fracture failures of composite insulators have been extensively studied over the years by Kumosa et al. [14], [15], [19], [21], [22], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28]. Numerous testing techniques and numerical models have been designed to explain the brittle fracture process in various designs of composite insulators. Several different stress corrosion methods have been used to duplicate the process under laboratory conditions. Various pultruded E-glass and ECR-glass /polymer composites have been subjected to the combined effect of mechanical, chemical and electrical stresses. In particular, the effect of either organic (oxalic) or inorganic acids (nitric) on the resistance to the stress corrosion process in the glass/polymer composites has been extensively investigated [28], [37], [38]. However, none of the previous testing techniques used in the insulator research provided meaningful conclusions regarding the resistance of the composites to the initiation of SCC. Therefore, ranking of composites based on E-glass fibers for their resistance to brittle fracture could not be accurately established. Since a vast majority of suspension composite insulators are based on E-glass fiber composites with either polyester, epoxy and vinyl ester resins, the issue of initiation of SCC in these composites when subjected to mechanical tensile loads in the presence of a nitric acid solution (the most probable cause of brittle fracture failures) is extremely important.
The previous tests have shown that the stress-corrosion process can be initiated in a composite subjected to nitric acid and mechanical stresses [28], [37], [38]. Moreover, the process has also been initiated in some of the composites when subjected to the combined effect of mechanical stresses, corona discharges and moisture. Regarding the effect of different glass fibers (ECR vs. E-glass) and polymer resins (modified polyester, polyester, polyester with clay, polyester with calcium carbonate, epoxy, vinyl ester and modified vinyl ester) on the stress-corrosion process, the following two major conclusions were drawn [28], [37], [38]:
- 1.
Neither crack initiation nor propagation could be achieved in the ECR-glass/polymer composites under the influence of a nitric acid solution (pH 1.2) and mechanical stresses.
- 2.
For the E-glass-fiber/polymer composites, the type of polymer resin does not significantly affect the stress-corrosion process under the stable crack propagation conditions. Stress-corrosion cracks in the composites grow almost at the same rate when subjected to mechanical tensile stresses and nitric acid and their crack growth rates can be described using a power law [31], [34], [35]. Below the stable crack growth regime, the SCC process is still possible, however, the crack propagation process cannot be described by the power law relation.
Despite the fact that differences have been noticed regarding the initiation of SCC in the E-glass/polymer composites depending on the type of resin, the exact relationship between the onset of stress corrosion cracking and the type of resin could not be quantitatively established. Therefore, an attempt was made in this research to evaluate the resistance to SCC in nitric acid, and in particular, the resistance to the initiation of brittle fracture in the three most commonly used pultruded composites in composite suspension insulators. These composites are based on E-glass fibers with either modified polyester, epoxy or vinyl ester resins. The resistance to SCC in nitric acid of the composites was investigated by exposing the as supplied surfaces of the composites to the acid under four-point bend testing conditions.
Section snippets
Fixture design
The stress-corrosion experiments on unidirectional E-glass/polymer composites were performed by using a newly designed four-point bend fixture. A schematic illustration of the fixture is shown in Fig. 2. The load was applied to the specimen by placing weights on the top plate using the pin to ensure they are completely centered. Both the spacing between the load pins and the diameter of the load pins were in accordance with ASTM specification D790-86 standard [39]. Bearings were inserted in the
Stress-corrosion test results and discussion
Three E-glass/polymer systems, namely E-glass/epoxy, E-glass/modified polyester, and E-glass/vinyl ester were tested for their resistance to the SCC in nitric acid.
Discussion
It has been shown in this research that the acoustic emission results are significantly different for each composite tested in nitric acid. The highest rates of acoustic emission signals were observed for the E-glass/modified polyester composite, with the lowest for the E-glass/vinyl ester composite material. There is a strong relation between the amount of stress-corrosion surface damage observed on the surfaces of the specimens and the acoustic emission data. The largest amount of surface
Conclusions
- 1.
A series of stress-corrosion tests have been performed on three different composite systems based on E-glass-fibers with modified polyester, epoxy and vinyl-ester polymer resins in order to evaluate the resistance of the composites to stress-corrosion cracking in nitric acid. Particular emphasis has been placed in this research to determine the resistance to the initiation of stress-corrosion cracks by subjecting the as supplied surfaces of the composites to nitric acid in the presence of
Acknowledgements
This research has been supported by the Western Area Power Administration, Pacific Gas and Electric Company and Glasforms, Inc. The authors are especially grateful to Mr. O. Perkins of WAPA, Mr. D. Shaffner of PG&E and Mr. T. McQuarrie of Glasforms for their continuous support of this study.
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