American presidential Machiavellianism

Abstract

The purpose of this investigation was to study the relationships among American presidential Machiavellianism, charismatic leadership, and rated performance. Using historiometric methodology, raters assessed Machiavellianism in unidentified profiles describing 39 American presidents (Washington to Reagan). Archival sources were used for two close and two distant presidential charismatic leadership measures, two performance assessments, and four control variables. Hierarchical regression analyses confirmed the predictions that presidential Machiavellianism would be positively connected with charismatic leadership and rated performance. The findings are explained in terms of the similar features of Machiavellianism and charismatic leadership including high levels of expressive behavioral activity, self-confidence, emotional regulation, and the desire to influence others. Also, the idea that personalized and socialized charismatic leadership are not mutually exclusive concepts is supported.

Introduction

American presidential leadership is fundamentally a relational process (Neustadt, 1960) where decisions have considerable consequences for entire societies. Extensive research clearly demonstrates the centrality of leadership ability in assessments of presidential greatness (Kenney & Rice, 1988). In addition, widespread media and public scrutiny of the presidency establish leadership qualities as important determinants for presidential performance (Foti, Fraser, & Lord, 1982). Accordingly, it is not surprising that the presidency is an office where the incumbent's psychological make-up greatly influences choices, discretionary activity (Renshon, 1998), and ultimately leadership effectiveness. In this respect, one research domain illuminating presidential leadership and personality is charismatic leadership. Charismatic leaders possess a magnetic personality and engage in expressive behaviors with the intent of creating an image of competence and effectiveness Gardner & Avolio, 1998, House, 1995. Charismatic leaders are able to evoke strong follower commitment to their vision and performance exceeding expectations Bass, 1985, Yukl, 1998. However, we know very little concerning how these impressive results are achieved Fiol et al., 1999, Howell & Hall-Merenda, 1999.

With regard to presidential leadership, Simonton (1988) demonstrated that presidential charisma was positively associated with a wide range of historical measures gauging presidential greatness. Also, Deluga, 1997, Deluga, 1998 reported that narcissism and proactivity were connected with presidential charismatic leadership and performance. Next, House, Spangler, and Woycke (1991) concluded that presidential personality and charisma were important factors in performance. Nevertheless, because of the impact of their actions, much more needs to be known regarding charismatic leadership and personality in the American presidency.

Consequently, given the idea presidential personality characteristics strongly influence decision-making (Renshon, 1998) and may predict charismatic leadership House, 1977, House & Howell, 1992, Post, 1993, it seems worthwhile to continue examining presidential personality. Accordingly, the personality trait of interest in this study was presidential Machiavellianism. Machiavellianism is a social influence process embracing the use of politics, power, and expressive behaviors (Christie & Geis, 1970a). Machiavellianism was selected because earlier work argued that Machiavellian behavior may be associated with charismatic leadership (House & Howell, 1992) and success in promoting personal interests (Christie & Geis, 1970a). For instance, charismatic leaders and Machiavellians employ interactional expressive behaviors and emotional regulation targeted toward influencing others Gardner & Avolio, 1995, Gardner & Avolio, 1998. Likewise, both manifest confidence and conviction, even when experiencing inner doubt (House, 1977).

Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to empirically address the following research question. Is American presidential Machiavellianism related to charismatic leadership and rated performance? In 2 Machiavellianism, 3 Charismatic leadership, Machiavellianism and charismatic leadership are reviewed. Then, a historiometric study empirically examining the relationships among presidential Machiavellianism, charismatic leadership, and rated performance is described.