Feedback orientation, feedback culture, and the longitudinal performance management process
Introduction
While considerable attention has been given recently to multisource 360° feedback (cf. London & Smither, 1995, Tornow & London, 1998) as a discrete event, much less attention has been given to the individual, organizational, and longitudinal aspects of the use of feedback. Approaches to feedback in the literature have moved from a static view focusing on the immediate effects of feedback (see reviews by Ilgen et al., 1979, Nadler, 1979) to a more dynamic view focusing on feedback seeking (cf. Ashford & Cummings, 1983, Larson, 1984, Walker & Smither, 1999), multiple sources of feedback (Tornow & London, 1998), and feedback interventions to improve performance [see Kluger & DeNisi's (1996) meta-analysis]. The tendency in the literature has been to view feedback in isolation of other events that unfold over time.
In the current paper, we adopt a person–environment interaction view of feedback processes over time, outlined in Fig. 1. We focus on how individual characteristics and organizational characteristics shape the impact of feedback over time. Specifically, we extend the dynamic view of feedback by first introducing the concepts of feedback orientation (an individual-level construct) and feedback culture (an organizational-level construct). We then describe their tie to the longitudinal performance management process. We also describe how a longitudinal perspective can help us understand feedback processes in ways that are not obvious when feedback processes are viewed from a short-term or cross-sectional perspective. We conclude by offering directions for research that will help us better understand the complex effects of interacting and overlapping feedback cycles.
Section snippets
Feedback orientation
We conceptualize feedback orientation as a construct consisting of multiple dimensions that work together additively to determine an individual's overall receptivity to feedback and the extent to which the individual welcomes guidance and coaching. It includes: (1) liking feedback (i.e., an overall positive affect toward feedback and an absence, or a low level, of evaluation apprehension); (2) behavioral propensity to seek feedback Ashford & Black, 1996, Ashford & Tsui, 1991; (3) cognitive
Feedback culture
A strong feedback culture is one where individuals continuously receive, solicit, and use formal and informal feedback to improve their job performance. This may be linked to effective policies and programs for performance management, continuous learning, and career development. The individual's feedback orientation depends in part on the support and climate for learning. The more frequent the feedback and the closer it follows the behavior in question, the more likely it is to be accepted (cf.
Toward a longitudinal, developmental performance management process
Feedback orientation and culture influence how feedback is received, interpreted, and used over time. Here we articulate the components of this longitudinal performance management process and their relationships to feedback orientation and culture (see Fig. 1).
A manager may receive formal feedback in a variety of situations. One common context for formal feedback is the traditional performance appraisal review discussion with one's supervisor. More extensive feedback may come from a 360°
Components of the performance management cycle
The performance management cycle is a multistage, longitudinal process that may last days, weeks, or even months. Key to a performance management cycle is the relationship between receiving and using feedback, moderated by the individual's feedback orientation and the organization's feedback culture. The cycle occurs over time as the individual deals with the feedback. How much time it takes depends on the individual's initial receptivity to feedback, the support for using feedback, and how
The cumulative effect of repeating and interacting performance management cycles
People may experience several, possibly overlapping, cycles as they work on different elements of their performance. Here, research is sparse, and we are on more speculative grounds in proposing how this process works. We may presume that each successive cycle focuses on fine-tuning specific behaviors. Together, the cycles have a cumulative effect on behavior change. These cycles may be part of a larger cycle, one that is of greater importance to the individual with valuable outcomes at stake.
Implications for research design, measurement, and practice
Research should investigate the relationship of feedback orientation to work performance, behavior change, and performance improvements. Research should also investigate the relationship between feedback orientation and related constructs, such as self-monitoring, mastery orientation, self-enhancement, self-verification, and self-management (Latham & Frayne, 1989). Other associated constructs include performance management orientation (the extent to which individuals focus on enhancing current
Conclusion
Feedback orientation and culture influence receptivity to feedback and the extent to which feedback is sought, valued, and used. Feedback involves repeating, multistage cycles. Receiving, interpreting, and applying feedback occur in each cycle and affect succeeding cycles. Individuals' reactions and behaviors vary at each stage of the cycle. Each stage needs to be understood in a longitudinal context to determine ways to enhance the value of feedback. Over time, multiple performance management
References (71)
- et al.
Feedback as an individual resource: personal strategies of creating information
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
(1983) - et al.
A cognitive view of the performance appraisal process: a model and research propositions
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
(1984) - et al.
A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation
- et al.
Category-based and attribute reactions of some information conditions of stereotyping and individuating processes
Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology
(1987) The performance feedback process: a preliminary model
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
(1984)- et al.
Situational and individual determinants of feedback seeking: a closer look at the process
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
(1995) Interpersonal insight in organizations: cognitive models for human resource development
Human Resource Management Review
(1994)- et al.
Management practices in learning organizations
Organizational Dynamics
(1992) - et al.
“…Do I love thee? Let me count…” Toward an understanding of intuitive and automatic decision making
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
(1990) The effects of feedback on task group behavior: a review of the experimental research
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
(1979)
Performance feedback improves the resolution of confidence judgments
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
Effects of feedback consistency and feedback favorability on perceived task competence and perceived feedback accuracy
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
Self-monitoring and 360-degree ratings
Leadership Quarterly
Proactivity during organizational entry: the role of desire for control
Journal of Applied Psychology
Self-regulation for managerial effectiveness: the role of active feedback seeking
Academy of Management Journal
Americans in transition: life changes as reasons for adult learning
Self-efficacy mechanisms in human agency
American Psychologist
Performance outcome feedback and attributional feedback: interactive effects on recipient responses
Journal of Applied Psychology
The big five personality dimensions and job performance: a meta-analysis
Personnel Psychology
The self
The nature and structure of the self: an overview
Image theory: decision making in personal and organizational contexts
The performance appraisal interview: a review, implications, and suggestions
Academy of Management Review
An examination of the relationships between work commitment and nonwork domains
Human Relations
Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PIR) and the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual
A motivational approach to self: integration in personality
Framing, cognitive modes, and image theory: toward an understanding of a glass half full
Journal of Applied Psychology
Motivational processes affecting learning
American Psychologist
Controlling other people: the impact of power on stereotyping
American Psychologist
Organizational use of therapeutic change: strengthening multisource feedback systems through interdisciplinary coaching
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research
Behind closed doors: what really happens in executive coaching
Organizational Dynamics
Individual differences in the generation and processing of performance feedback
Educational and Psychological Measurement
Enhancing staff members' performance through feedback and coaching
Journal of Management Development
Consequences of individual feedback on behavior in organizations
Journal of Applied Psychology
Cited by (262)
Feedback orientation: A meta-analysis
2023, Human Resource Management ReviewGaining feedback acceptance: Leader-member attachment style and psychological safety
2023, Human Resource Management ReviewThe effect of changes in negative feedback on task performance: the role of goal orientation and feedback utility
2024, Chinese Management Studies