Review articlePiezoelectric materials for tissue regeneration: A review
Graphical abstract
Upon deformation, the generated surface charges induced by the piezoelectric material redistribute extracellular proteins and ions. Changes in streaming potential, aggregation of ionic species and adsorption of proteins, such as fibronectin, on the material surface can facilitate cell–material interaction. An influx of ions into the cells may also occur which can promote cell behavior/function on piezoelectric materials.
Introduction
Piezoelectric materials are smart materials that can generate electrical activity in response to minute deformations. First discovered by Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880 [1], deformation results in the asymmetric shift of ions or charges in piezoelectric materials, which induces a change in the electric polarization, and thus electricity is generated. Piezoelectric materials are widely used in various electronic applications such as transducers, sensors and actuators. For biomedical applications, piezoelectric materials allow for the delivery of an electrical stimulus without the need for an external power source. As a scaffold for tissue engineering, there is growing interest in piezoelectric materials due to their potential of providing electrical stimulation to cells to promote tissue formation. In this review, we cover the discovery of piezoelectricity in biological tissues, its connection to streaming potentials, biological response to electrical stimulation and commonly used piezoelectric materials for tissue regeneration. This review summarizes their potential as a promising scaffold in the tissue engineering field.
Section snippets
Piezoelectricity in biological tissues
In 1940, Martin [2] noticed the first demonstration of biological piezoelectricity, when he detected electric potentials from a bundle of wool encapsulated in shellac while compressed by two brass plates. The main constituent of mammalian hair, wool, horn and hoof is α-keratin [3], [4], which has a spiral α-helix structure [4]. The piezoelectricity of such tissues is attributed to the compact alignment of these highly ordered α-helices and their inherent polarization [5], [6]. α-Helix is a
Piezoelectricity and streaming potential
In 1892, Julius Wolff [31] suggested that bone remodels its architecture in response to stress. “Wolff’s Law” manifests itself in the denser bone in tennis players’ racket-holding arms or bone loss in astronauts. After the discovery of piezoresponse in dry bone [9], the proposed mechanism to describe bone growth and resorption in response to stress was piezoelectricity. As one of the pioneers of investigating the biological effects of piezoelectricity, Bassett [32] observed that unlike
Cellular response to electrical stimulation
In addition to piezoelectricity and streaming potentials in bone and other fibrous tissues, endogenous electric fields up to 500 mV/mm have been reported in living tissues [41]. The transport of ionic species and macromolecules associated with endogenous electric fields play crucial roles in embryonic development [42], wound healing [43] and neural regeneration [44]. There exists a difference in intracellular and extracellular ionic concentrations, resulting in a transmembrane potential of −10
Piezoceramics
Using piezoelectric materials as tissue engineering scaffolds enables electrical stimulation without the need for electrodes, external source of electricity or implanting batteries, which also eliminates the chance of accumulating products of electrolysis. Piezoelectric scaffolds can generate electric pulses as a result of transient deformations, which can be imposed by attachment and migration of cells or body movements. The materials used in scaffolds needs to be biocompatible and possess
Conclusion
Electricity exists in living tissues in the form of stress-generated potentials, endogenous electric fields and transmembrane potentials. Numerous studies have been carried out on whether or not imitating these biological electric fields can enhance growth and repair. Some of these efforts have resulted in clinical trials or approved medical treatments. Implantation of piezoelectric materials in vivo has prompted encouraging results in repairing nerve injuries, bone formation and wound healing,
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank support from DOD W81XWH-14-1-0482 and NSF DMR-1006510.
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