Archeology and the Anthropocene
Introduction
In a landmark paper published in the journal Science near the turn of the 21st century, “Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems,” Vitousek et al. (1997) conducted a meta-analysis and found that humans had reached a historical watershed in transforming our planet—atmospherically, hydrologically, pedologically, geochemically, biologically, ecologically, and more (Fig. 1). A few 4 years later, Jackson et al. (2001) argued that the recent collapse of marine fisheries and ecosystems had deeper roots in a gradual intensification of coastal fisheries and the development of sophisticated maritime technologies by Homo sapiens sapiens (anatomically modern humans, a.k.a. AMH). Ecological and cultural changes intensified with the development of European colonialism and a globalized economy, beginning in the late 15th century AD with Christopher Columbus’ ‘discovery’ of the Americas and the mapping of remote continents and islands that ensued in the decades or centuries that followed. These and other studies proposed that humans have had significant impacts on earth's ecosystems for centuries or even millennia (e.g., Alroy, 2001, Erlandson and Rick, 2010, Foley et al., 2013, Goudie, 2000, Kirch, 2005, Kirch and Hunt, 1997, Martin, 1973, Martin and Steadman, 1999, Redman, 1999; Redman et al., 2004; Rick and Erlandson, 2008, Steadman, 2006).
At the turn of the millennium, not coincidentally, another idea proposed earlier gained significant traction. This was the idea that humans had reached a level of domination of the Earth that was both measurable and of comparable scale to those of previous transitions between geological epochs. This proposed new epoch, known as the Anthropocene (human era), recognizes the widespread effects humans have had on Earth's climate, atmosphere, oceans, rivers, estuaries, terrestrial landscapes, and the biodiversity of floral and faunal communities. The concept of an Anthropocene epoch has generated considerable debate, some about the value of the idea itself, and some about where the temporal boundary between the Holocene and the Anthropocene should be drawn. As this debate has unfolded, the use of the term Anthropocene has grown in the popular media (e.g., Kolbert, 2011) and among scientists from a variety of disciplines. Curiously, there has been little discussion of the topic within the discipline of archeology, an historical science that is well positioned to address the long term processes involved in how humans have come to dominate our planet (see Redman, 1999, Redman et al., 2004).
In organizing this volume, which grew out of a 2013 symposium at the Society of American Archaeology meetings held in Honolulu (Balter, 2013), we sought to rectify this situation by inviting a distinguished group of archeologists to examine the issue of humanity's expanding footprint on Earth's ecosystems. The papers in this issue utilize archeological records to consider the Anthropocene from a variety of topical or regional perspectives. The first two papers address general and global issues, including Smith and Zeder's discussion of human niche construction and the development of agricultural and pastoral societies, as well as Braje and Erlandson's summary of late Pleistocene and Holocene extinctions as a continuum mediated by climate change, human activities, and other factors. Several papers then look at the archeology of human landscape transformation within specific regions of the world: C. Melvin Aikens and Gyoung-Ah Lee for East Asia, Sarah McClure for Europe, Anna Roosevelt for Amazonia, and Douglas Kennett and Timothy Beach for Mesoamerica. Later chapters again address global issues: from Torben Rick, Patrick Kirch, Erlandson, and Scott Fitzpatrick's summary of ancient human impacts on three well-studied island archipelagos (Polynesia, California's Channel Islands, and the Caribbean) around the world; to Erlandson's discussion of the widespread post-glacial appearance of coastal, riverine, and lake-side shell middens as a potential stratigraphic marker of the Anthropocene; and Kent Lightfoot, Lee Panich, Tsim Schneider, and Sara Gonzalez’ exploration of the effects of colonialism and globalization along the Pacific Coast of North America and around the world. Finally, we complete the volume with concluding remarks that examine the breadth of archeological approaches to the Anthropocene, and the significance and implications of understanding the deep historical processes that led to human domination of Earth's ecosystems.
In this introduction we provide a broad context for the articles that follow by: (1) briefly discussing the history of the Anthropocene concept (see also Smith and Zeder, 2014); (2) summarizing the nature of archeological approaches to understanding human impacts on ancient environments; (3) setting the stage with a brief overview of human evolution, demographic expansion and migrations, and the acceleration of technological change; (4) and identifying some tipping points and key issues involved in an archeological examination of the Anthropocene.
Section snippets
The Anthropocene: definition and history
The idea that humans have come to dominate the Earth has deep roots dating back to the mid-1800s, with Marsh's (1864) groundbreaking publication of Man and Nature and Antonio Stoppani's (1873) definition of an “anthropozoic era” (see Crutzen, 2002a, Goudie, 2000, pp. 4–5). Other terms to denote humans as an agent of global change were proposed in the early 20th century. From the 1920s to 1940s, for example, some European scientists referred to the Earth as entering an anthropogenic era known as
Archeological approaches to the Anthropocene
As demonstrated by the papers in this issue, archeology—the study of material remains left behind by past human cultures—has much to contribute to understanding the deep history of human impacts on earth's landscapes and ecosystems. From the controversial and often polarized debates about the history of anthropogenically driven extinctions, to the origins and spread of agricultural and pastoral societies, the effects of humans on marine fisheries and coastal ecosystems, to the acceleration of
Setting the stage
Roughly 2.5 million years ago—more than 100,000 human generations—the appearance of Homo habilis marked the emergence of a new genus of primate in Africa. Other than a slightly enlarged brain and the use of relatively simple stone tools, there was little to suggest that later members of the genus Homo would one day dominate the earth. But dominate it they eventually did, once their ancestors achieved a series of herculean tasks: a marked increase in brain size (encephalization), intelligence,
Accelerating technological and behavioral change
Within this broad overview of human evolution, geographic expansion, and technological innovation, we can also see a general acceleration of behavioral and technological change through the past 2.5 million years (Fig. 3). Beginning with the Oldowan Complex, technological change was initially very slow, with limited evidence of innovation from the initial Oldowan, through the Developed Oldowan, to the appearance of the Acheulean Complex about 1.7 million years ago. The Acheulean, marked by a
Summary and conclusions
Since the 1960s, archeologists have debated the nearly simultaneous appearance of domestication, agriculture, and complex cultures in widely dispersed areas around the world, areas with very different ecologies as well as human colonization and demographic histories. Traditional explanations for this Holocene ‘revolution’ have relied on environmental change, population pressure, and growing resource stress as the primary causes for such widespread yet similar developmental trajectories among
Acknowledgments
We are indebted to the University of Oregon and San Diego State University for supporting our research. We also thank the editorial team at Anthropocene—Anne Chin, Timothy Horscroft, and Rashika Venkataraman—two anonymous reviewers, and all the participants of our 2013 Society for American Archaeology symposium and contributors to this volume. Finally, we are grateful to Torben Rick for his intellectual contributions to the planning of this volume and lively discussions about archeology and the
References (68)
A multispecies overkill simulation of the end-Pleistocene megafaunal mass extinction
Science
(2001)Paleolithic technology and human evolution
Science
(2001)Short and sometimes sharp: human impacts on marine resources in the archaeology and history of South Polynesia
Archaeologists say the ‘Anthropocene’ is here—but it began long ago
Science
(2013)Post-Pleistocene adaptations
- et al.
Human acceleration of animal and plant extinctions: a late Pleistocene, Holocene, and Anthropocene continuum
Anthropocene
(2014) Where river meets sea: a parsimonious model for Homo sapiens colonization of the Indian Ocean rim and Sahul
Curr. Anthropol.
(2007)The Mesolithic Settlement of Northern Europe
(1936)The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture
(1977)Introduction: rethinking the origins of agriculture
Curr. Anthropol.
(2009)
Columbian Exchange: The Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492
Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900
Geology of mankind
Nature
The Anthropocene
J. Phys. IV
How long have we been in the Anthropocene era?
Clim. Change
The Anthropocene
IGBP Newslett.
Biophysical feedbacks between the Pleistocene megafauna extinction and climate: the first human-induced global warming?
Geophys. Res. Lett.
Aquatic adaptations: paradigms for a new millennium
J. Archaeol. Res.
Ancient immigrants: archaeology and maritime migrations
Shell middens and other anthropogenic soils as global stratigraphic signatures for the Anthropocene
When Humans Dominated the Earth: Archaeological Perspectives on the Anthropocene
Anthropocene
The kelp highway hypothesis: marine ecology, the coastal migration theory, and the peopling of the Americas
J. Island Coast. Archaeol.
Archaeology meets marine ecology: the antiquity of maritime cultures and human impacts on marine fisheries and ecosystems
Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci.
The Palaeoanthropocene – the beginnings of anthropogenic environmental change
Anthropocene
The Human Impact on the Natural Environment
Research and development in the Stone Age: technological transitions among hunter–gatherers
Curr. Anthropol.
Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems
Science
On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact
Archaeology and global change: the Holocene record
Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour.
The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins
Enter the Anthropocene: age of man
Natl. Geogr.
New fossils from Koobi Fora in northern Kenya confirm taxonomic diversity in early Homo
Nature
An earlier origin for the Acheulian
Nature
Anthropogenic transformations and European colonialism: the effects of early historical globalization in western North America
When Humans Dominated the Earth: Archaeological Perspectives on the Anthropocene
Anthropocene
Cited by (77)
Geochemical study of a Neolithic metallurgical site, Le Planet (France): Detection of paleopollution recorded in archaeological soils
2024, Journal of Archaeological Science: ReportsMore than agriculture: Analysing time-cumulative human impact on European land-cover of second half of the holocene
2023, Quaternary Science ReviewsThe stratigraphic basis of the Anthropocene Event
2023, Quaternary Science AdvancesEnvironmental implications of past socioeconomic events in Greater Poland during the last 1200 years. Synthesis of paleoecological and historical data
2021, Quaternary Science ReviewsCitation Excerpt :The past anthropogenic activity could be inferred from geological archives like peatlands and lakes. Their deposits are crucial to reconstruct long-term human-induced environmental changes (e.g. Erlandson and Braje, 2013; Giesecke et al., 2019; Stephens et al., 2019). Past human impact on vegetation can be reconstructed using pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs), and micro- and macrocharcoal particles deposited in such archives (e.g. Dietze et al., 2018; Gaillard, 2013; Gauthier et al., 2010; Sadori et al., 2016).
The Anthropocene fossil record of terrestrial mammals
2020, AnthropoceneMaritime Archaeological Research, Sustainability, and Climate Resilience
2023, European Journal of Archaeology
- 1
Tel.: +1 415 734 8396; fax: +1 619 594 1150.