Public perceptions of natural disturbance in Canada’s national parks: The case of the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins)

Abstract

Since the 1990s, the mountain pine beetle (MPB) population has exploded in western Canada. In national parks, MPB has the potential to impact visual quality and safety of visitors, and to spread beyond park boundaries to the industrial forest landbase. Control measures have been initiated in some parks to lessen these impacts. A study was undertaken to examine public attitudes, knowledge, issue salience, and management preferences for MPB in Banff and Kootenay national parks. Data were collected by mail survey in 2003 from 1385 residents living in or near the parks. MPB was an important issue for the majority of respondents and they had low knowledge of MPB, expressed negative attitudes towards it, and supported measures to control it. Preferred control measures included those directed at the current infestation. Proactive approaches in uninfested forests were generally not supported. Issue salience and knowledge were the best predictors of attitudes toward the MPB. Attitudes were the best predictors of support for no intervention in beetle infestations in national parks. Management implications include the lack of knowledge and support for natural disturbance and ecological integrity policies in national parks.

Introduction

The mountain pine beetle (MPB), Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, is considered one of the most destructive forest pests in western Canada largely because of its impacts on timber supply, the forest industry, and forest dependent communities (Natural Resources Canada, 2005). The MPB is endemic to lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests of British Columbia (BC), usually occurring in small numbers and widely dispersed populations. However, the beetle is subject to population fluctuations and since the 1990s the population has increased to the largest forest insect infestation recorded in North America (Taylor and Carroll, 2004). In 2003, over 4 million hectares of BCs forests were infested extending the beetle beyond what is considered its historical range (Ebata, 2004). By 2004, the outbreak had spread to over 7 million hectares (Natural Resources Canada, 2005).

The main factors contributing to the current outbreak are climate and the availability of the primary host species, mature lodgepole pine (Carroll et al., 2004). Hot, dry summers create stress in the trees, leaving them less able to combat the infestation. Periods of cold (temperatures below −25 °C in the fall or −40 °C in late winter for sustained periods) can also kill the beetle (Carroll and Safranyik, 2004). Decades of forest fire suppression have resulted in an abundance of susceptible host species in BC (Taylor and Carroll, 2004) and Alberta (Ono, 2004).

There are few options for controlling MPB outbreaks (Langor, 2003). The most effective strategy is prevention through long-term forest management plans, including thinning stands, prescribed burning, and planting non-host species to reduce the rate of spread of small, endemic populations. Once MPB populations reach the outbreak stage, however, little can be done for effective control. Short-term control methods such as harvesting of infested and vulnerable stands, can be used to reduce MPB damage.

Protected areas, such as national parks, are commonly cited as an integral component in a biodiversity conservation strategy (e.g., Reid and Miller, 1989). Consistent with this concept, Canada’s national parks have adopted ecological integrity as the first priority in park management. Ecological integrity is described as “a condition that is determined to be characteristic of its natural region and likely to persist, including abiotic components and the composition and abundance of native species and biological communities, rates of change and supporting processes” (Parks Canada, 2003). Based on the ecological integrity mandate, native insects and disease should be allowed to persist without interference if possible.

The MPB is endemic to all of Canada’s mountain national parks but has only reached epidemic levels in Kootenay, Yoho, and Waterton (Parks Canada, 2004). Kootenay National Park in BC, has experienced several MPB outbreaks dating back to the 1940s, the most recent of which began in the 1990s. Although the park does have a prescribed burn program aimed at meeting ecological integrity objectives, at the time of this study no measures had been implemented for the express purpose of controlling the MPB. The adjacent area of Banff National Park, in the province of Alberta, has not been as affected by MPB. Although it is endemic to the park, MPB outbreaks have been much smaller and historically not a significant natural disturbance agent. Recently, however, the beetle has extended its range into previously uninfested areas of the park, spreading to the parks eastern boundary with provincial crown lands. Banff National Park has established three MPB management zones: a zone of no intervention where beetle populations fluctuate without controls; a prescribed burn zone to reduce build-up of mature lodgepole pine stands and beetle populations; and a zone with a combination of prescribed burning, sanitation cutting (logging and removal or burning of infested trees on-site) and pheromone baiting (attracting beetles to an area in preparation for the use of other controls).

MPB and its management in national parks is a potentially contentious issue. Its presence within the parks’ lodgepole pine ecosystems represents a natural disturbance agent. Therefore, it may play an important role in rejuvenating the ecosystem by creating gaps in the forest cover allowing new and increased growth for young trees and increased species diversity (Parks Canada, 2004). Actions to control the beetle could be viewed as inconsistent with the principles of ecological integrity. On the other hand, the current outbreak of MPB may be viewed as a symptom of an unhealthy ecosystem that is, at least partially, the result of fire suppression policies in the parks. Undertaking management activities (such as prescribed burning) to restore ecosystems to more natural levels of variation is considered consistent with the ecological integrity mandate. Additionally, MPB infestation has the potential to impact upon the visual quality of park scenery, presents a hazard to park users (dead and falling trees), and has the potential to spread beyond park boundaries to the neighboring industrial forest landbase impacting local and provincial economies.

Managing the beetle in national parks presents a challenge in terms of devising control measures that are compatible with the ecological integrity mandate, that are acceptable to the public, and that do not have a negative effect on visitor experiences. Gauging public support for proposed control measures and the factors that influence support can provide guidance to park managers in selecting control options, provide direction for public education programs, ensure a broad range of public values and concerns are represented in decisions, and reduce conflict among various stakeholders (Shindler et al., 2002).

Managing for ecological integrity and conservation of biodiversity in protected areas requires an understanding of the human dimension (e.g., attitudes and preferences) as well as the ecological. Much of the social science literature on natural disturbance has focused on the economic impacts on resource-based industries (e.g., Leuschner et al., 1978), visual quality impacts (e.g., Buhyoff et al., 1982), variation in community (e.g., Flint, 2004) and private landowner (e.g., Molnar et al., 2003) response to insect infestations, and attitudes, knowledge, and acceptance of wildfire and fuel management options and policies outside of protected areas (e.g., Loomis et al., 2001). The social aspects of natural disturbance in protected areas, however, have received less attention. The literature on protected areas is focused primarily on the effects of wildfire or prescribed burns on recreation and non-market values (e.g., Englin et al., 1996) and acceptance of fire policies (e.g., Bright et al., 1993). Understanding stakeholders’ attitudes related to natural disturbance, acceptance of managing natural disturbance, and the factors influencing these are important elements in understanding social aspects of ecological integrity and conserving biodiversity within protected areas.

Although several conceptualizations of attitudes can be found in the literature, we adopt the definition of attitude as a favorable or unfavorable assessment of an attitude object. For this study the attitude object is the MPB in national parks. Typically, attitude is expressed as positive or negative evaluations such that individuals are described as having positive attitudes toward an object if the object is assessed favorably and a negative attitude if it is assessed unfavorably (Vaske and Donnelly, 1999). For example, positive attitudes toward large carnivores have included a favorable assessment of their right to exist, that their numbers should be increased, that they are symbols of the greatness of nature, and that it is important to know that they exist. Negative attitudes have included assessments that they should be hunted, that they should be restricted in their range, and that they should be eliminated from areas with livestock (Ericsson and Heberlein, 2003, Kaczensky et al., 2004).

Attitudes toward natural resource management issues may be influenced by several factors including environmental worldview, knowledge and salience of the issue, and sociocultural influences. Attitudes toward a management issue, in turn, influence judgement of acceptable management and policy options. Individuals with positive attitudes toward fire, for example, are generally more supportive of prescribed burn policies and have a more positive assessment of the potential outcomes from wildfire (Loomis et al., 2001, Manfredo et al., 1990). Similarly, positive attitudes towards large carnivores are related to support for policies aimed at expanding their range (Bright and Manfredo, 1996, Enck and Brown, 2002, Kaczensky et al., 2004).

Environmental worldviews are non-issue specific beliefs that form the basis for attitudes and behaviors directed at more specific environmental issues. Individuals with a strong ecological worldview tend to have proenvironmental attitudes on a wide range of issues. For example, an ecological worldview has been found to influence attitudes toward the protection of national forests in the United States (Vaske and Donnelly, 1999), and support for protection-oriented forest management in Canada (McFarlane and Boxall, 2003) and environmental policies across cultures (Rauwald and Moore, 2002).

Although it is often assumed that increased levels of knowledge will impact on attitudes and enhance support for resource management decisions, the literature suggests the influence of knowledge of management issues is inconclusive. Studies on wildfire, for example, suggest that as knowledge increases attitudes become more positive and individuals are more supportive of prescribed burn policies (e.g., Manfredo et al., 1990, Loomis et al., 2001). In contrast, studies of other natural resource management issues (especially highly controversial issues such as large carnivore restoration) suggest that individuals with higher levels of knowledge can have neutral or more negative attitudes and are less supportive of protection-oriented policies (Bright and Manfredo, 1996, Ericsson and Heberlein, 2003, Kaczensky et al., 2004).

Salience of the management issue should also influence attitudes. Issues of high personal importance are frequent subjects of conscious thought, making attitudes more cognitively accessible and better predictors of support for specific management options than attitudes toward unimportant issues (Bright and Manfredo, 1995). Individuals who regard a natural resource issue with high personal importance tend to have more extreme attitudes and show mixed support for resource management policies (Bright and Manfredo, 1995, Enck and Brown, 2002, Kaczensky et al., 2004).

Sociocultural influences such as age, sex, level of education, socialization influences, and area of residence can also influence attitudes and management preferences. Studies suggest that younger individuals, women, and people with higher levels of education tend to exhibit more positive attitudes toward natural resource issues and tend to be more supportive of protection-oriented management (Dietz et al., 1998, Vaske et al., 2001, Kaczensky et al., 2004). People employed in a natural resource-based industry (such as forestry) and local residents, tend to have more negative attitudes toward issues that may impact upon their economic livelihood and affect their communities and are less supportive of protection-oriented management (Enck and Brown, 2002, Kaczensky et al., 2004).

In 2003, we undertook a study to examine familiarity with the MPB, attitudes toward the MPB, acceptance of potential control measures within national parks, and information needs of residents living in or near Banff and Kootenay national parks. Specifically, the study addressed the following research questions: (1) What does the public know about MPB? (2) What is the public’s attitude towards MPB in national parks? (3) How accepting is the public of management actions to control MPB populations in national parks? and (4) What factors influence attitudes toward MPB and support for intervention in the MPB outbreak in national parks?

To examine factors that influence attitudes and support for intervention, we test a model whereby a proecological worldview is hypothesized to have a positive effect on attitudes toward MPB and support for no intervention in beetle outbreaks in national parks. Attitudes toward the MPB, in turn, are hypothesized to have a positive influence on support for no intervention (i.e., people who hold positive attitudes toward MPB will likely tolerate more damage from the MPB and be less supportive of controlling the infestation in national parks). Higher levels of knowledge of the MPB are expected to result in more positive attitudes and support for no intervention. Issue salience is expected to affect attitudes and support for no intervention negatively. The lower the personal importance of MPB in national parks, the more positive the attitude and the more support for no intervention. We hypothesize that women, younger individuals and those with higher levels of education will have a more positive attitude and be more supportive of no intervention. Having a household member dependent on the forest sector and residing in BC (where the MPB outbreak is having the greatest impact) are hypothesized to have a negative effect on attitudes and support for no intervention.