Psychophysiological effects of emotional responding to goal attainment
Introduction
Increasing interest has been devoted within the last decade to positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2001). Still, our knowledge of autonomic correlates of positive emotions remains limited (Cacioppo et al., 2000). Views of positive emotions as being comparatively few and relatively undifferentiated question the applicability of the hypothesis of autonomic specificity to positive emotions. What is more, overall, positive emotions have been said to be “characterized by a relative lack of autonomic activation” (Fredrickson and Levenson, 1998, p. 301), as supported by observations of decreased sympathetic activity (Fredrickson et al., 2000). Other studies have related positive emotions to increased parasympathetic activity (e.g., McCraty et al., 1995). From this point of view, the prospect of finding pronounced autonomic activation, let alone autonomic differentiation, for positive emotions seems rather bleak. Contrasting this perspective, appraisal theories of emotion presume a large spectrum of positive emotions (Frijda, 2006, Scherer, 2001, Scherer, 2009). Moreover, a recent literature review (Kreibig, this issue) supports the view that autonomic response differentiation may also apply to positive emotions and that autonomic responding under positive emotions need not be restricted to deactivating and energy conserving effects.
We here take an integrative approach to emotion, viewing emotions as reactions to action outcomes in relation to an individual’s goals (Carver and Scheier, 1998). Because prior goal striving constitutes an integral part of subsequent appraisal of goal attainment, we propose to study both emotional responding as well as the motivational antecedents that lead up to the emotionally potent event. It has been posited that motivation and emotion belong to two distinct phases of action. Whereas motivation is related to goal striving, i.e., the action phase, emotion is related to the assessment of action outcomes, i.e., the action-evaluation phase (Heckhausen and Gollwitzer, 1987). While acting toward the goal, individuals block information that might trigger re-evaluation of the goal or any form of self-evaluation, but are rather cognitively tuned toward cues that guide the course of action toward goal attainment. In contrast, when goal striving has been completed, individuals evaluate the action outcome and its consequences in order to establish whether goal pursuit has lead to the intended outcome, i.e., what has been achieved is compared with what was originally expected or intended.
In this context, the goal construct is invoked both as reason to act and as leading to emotions when obstructed or facilitated (Frijda, 1986). Goals underly an individual’s choice of one activity over another, engagement in it, effort investment in doing so, and persistence; goals also underly emotional responses to events that indicate achievement or non-achievement in the actions the individual has engaged in. According to this view, motivation and emotion have a common source—match or mismatch between actual conditions and an individual’s goals—but different roles with respect to actions and action goals. We take a closer look at the determinants and physiological correlates of motivation and emotion in the following section.
The effort invested in goal-striving, i.e., motivational intensity, is a function of subjective task difficulty and the importance of success (Brehm and Self, 1989, Wright and Kirby, 2001): motivational intensity is proportional to the difficulty variable, as posited in the difficulty law of motivation (Ach, 1935), while importance of success marks the upper limit of what a person is willing to do in order to succeed (i.e., potential motivation). Beyond this point, success is either viewed as impossible or to require more effort than warranted by its importance and hence, all effort is withdrawn. These predictions apply in case of clearly defined and known performance standards (i.e., “fixed difficulty”), where individuals can estimate how much effort is required to succeed in a task. When a task calls for a subject’s “best performance” (i.e., “unfixed difficulty”), individuals cannot estimate how much effort is required to succeed and hence motivational intensity is predicted to correspond to the maximum of justified motivation or the importance of success (Richter and Gendolla, 2009).
In relation to Obrist, 1976, Obrist, 1981 active coping approach to cardiovascular adjustments, motivational intensity has been operationalized by means of -adrenergically influenced cardiovascular indices, particularly pre-ejection period (PEP) and systolic blood pressure (SBP). Typical results demonstrate shortened PEP and increased SBP, and—with less consistency—increased diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and heart rate (HR) with increasing difficulty level: Low cardiovascular reactivity is observed for tasks that are easy, impossible, or not worth investing the necessary effort; high cardiovascular reactivity is observed in conditions of high or unspecified difficulty, interpreted to index importance of success Richter and Gendolla, 2009, Richter et al., 2008. Conditions of high self-involvement as contrasted to low self-involvement have been demonstrated to increase cardiovascular reactivity for difficult and unfixed tasks, indicating an increase of importance of success (e.g., Gendolla et al., 2008). Other research has also related electrodermal activity to effort mobilization and skin conductance response rate (SRR) to task engagement Gendolla and Richter, 2005, Pecchinenda and Smith, 1996.
Common knowledge tells us that when we are striving for something, we are often experiencing feelings such as hope, enthusiasm, or anxiety. Such prospective outcome emotions (Pekrun, 2006) occur when action stages are recursively revisited in the process of long-term goal striving and prospective action evaluations giving rise to such experiences. Moreover, activity pleasures (pleasure that comes from progress toward a goal of importance; Frijda, 2006) are believed to occur only under conditions where some obstacle had to be overcome or when the activity goes superbly smooth (cf. experience of flow; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Thus, affect, which subsumes affective dispositions, moods, and emotions (Scherer, 2005), is traditionally believed to not play a role in task performance or the “volitional phase” of goal striving (Heckhausen and Gollwitzer, 1987, Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999). In line with this, empirical findings indicate that neither task instructions nor task performance of the type of tasks typically employed in motivation research influence affective self-reports (Gendolla, 1999, Gendolla and Richter, 2005, Gendolla and Richter, 2006). Moreover, cardiovascular reactivity during task performance is typically highly-consistent and sustained over several minutes. Because this type of response does not fit the conceptualization of an event-related phasic autonomic responding in emotion (Scherer, 2005), cardiovascular activity during task performance is taken to reflect mental effort.
Emotion, in the present context, is conceptualized as a multi-component response, elicited by appraising an event as relevant to personal goals, needs, or values, with coordinated effects on subjective feeling, physiology, and motor expression (Scherer, 2001, Scherer, 2009). Appraisal is a direct, immediate, and highly automatic process (Arnold, 1960, Kappas, 2006) that relates the meaning of an event—its opportunities, threats, and constraints—to personal goals and values and evaluates the event’s implications for one’s personal well-being (Smith et al., 1993).
Positive performance outcomes can elicit joy, happiness, pride, relief, surprise, gratitude, or interest, as found in response to announcement of examination results in the academic context (e.g., Ellsworth and Smith, 1988, Pekrun et al., 2007) or in sport competitions (e.g., Vallerand and Blanchard, 2000). The specific type of emotion elicited is hypothesized to depend on appraisal outcomes: when the event is appraised as highly relevant to current needs and goals and as highly conducive to furthering or achieving these needs and goals, elicitation of joy is predicted (Scherer, 2001, Scherer, 2009); when additionally the event is appraised as caused by the self, elicitation of pride is predicted (Weiner, 1985, Weiner, 2000); when the event is appraised as having low outcome probability and as being discrepant from expectations, elicitation of surprise is predicted (Gendolla, 1997, Gendolla and Koller, 2001); and when the event is appraised as novel and complex, but the person feels able to manage it, elicitation of interest is predicted (Pribram, 2003, Silvia, 2005b).
Organization of emotional response components, including physiological responding, is hypothesized to follow appraisal outcomes (Frijda, 1986, Scherer, 2001, Scherer, 2009). Unlike physiological activation that is due to actual (or imagined) physical effort, physiological activation in emotion has been related to the notion of an interrupt, i.e., the need for readjustment (Frijda, 1986, Simon, 1967). Readjustment often is necessary, even if the change was expected, supporting assimilation of event information when it has arrived, initiating attention deployment, and preparing for subsequent action. Importantly, such predictions apply specifically to affective states of emotion, whereas moods—rather diffuse and long-lasting affective states that are not object-related—typically cause no change with respect to autonomic responding Gendolla et al., 2001, Silvestrini and Gendolla, 2007.
In contrast to negative emotions, specific predictions for physiological response patterns in positive emotions are rather sparse. Among the few that exist, Gellhorn, 1964, Gellhorn, 1970 associated postprandial happiness with excitation of the trophotropic system (i.e., parasympathetic dominance), whereas the feeling of triumph and extreme happiness was viewed as associated with excitation of the ergotropic system (i.e., sympathetic dominance). More recent views associate appraising a situation as goal conducive with a shift towards energy conservation and resource replenishment Scherer, 2001, Scherer, 2009, Van Reekum et al., 2004. Similarly, positive emotions in general have been proposed to be associated with parasympathetic cardiac control Fredrickson, 2001, Porges, 1995, as has been found for positive affect (Heponiemi et al., 2006), enjoyment (Matsunaga et al., 2009), and appreciation (McCraty et al., 1995). Positive emotions have moreover been related to speeding recovery from cardiovascular effects of negative emotions by reducing sympathetic activity (Fredrickson et al., 2000). These predictions may apply particularly to the kinds of positive emotions that are related to sensory pleasures and pleasures of gain and relief (Frijda, 2006). However, not all pleasure comes from meeting or attaining pleasant stimuli, and not all pleasant emotions are conceived of as “soothing.” Frijda (2006, p. 37), for example, associated joy with a “spilling of plenitude.” Pride and jubilation come to mind as “excited” emotions. It might thus be that certain positive emotions, in particular those associated with achievement and mastery pleasures (Frijda, 2006), are related to increased sympathetic activation in order to support activities of “broadening and building” (Fredrickson, 2001) that necessitate engagement with the environment (Bandler et al., 2000, Recordati, 2003).
Prior research found conditions of high goal relevance, based on the appraisal of success importance, to be associated with increased HR (Aue et al., 2007). Goal conduciveness relates to the appraisal that circumstances are favorable for furthering or obtaining ones’ goals. Conditions of high goal conduciveness, eliciting reports of joy, pride, and interest, were associated with increased HR, longer pulse transit time, increased skin conductance level (SCL), and faster rise of finger temperature, indicating peripheral vasodilation and anticipatory resource mobilization Aue and Scherer, 2008, Ravaja et al., 2008, Van Reekum et al., 2004. The experience of discrete positive emotions such as joy, pride, interest, and surprise, is typically associated with cardiovascular activation, including increased HR, SBP, DBP, and total peripheral resistance Waldstein et al., 1997, Vrana, 1993, Yogo et al., 1995, Tomaka and Palacios-Esquivel, 1997, Levenson et al., 1990. It is of note that cardiovascular responses during these emotions were repeatedly found to be “mild” or “moderate” in size Collet et al., 1997, Ekman et al., 1983, Herrald and Tomaka, 2002, Sinha et al., 1992, Uchiyama, 1992. Moreover, while joy experience is reported to increase respiration rate Ritz et al., 2000, Uchiyama, 1992, interest was associated with effects on HR variability (increased low frequency and decreased high frequency activity, the latter quantifying respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]; Muth et al., 1999), and both pride and surprise have been found not to affect RSA (Gruber et al., 2008, Santesso et al., 2007). Pride and surprise have also been related to effects on electrodermal activity, with increased SCL and SRR Niepel, 2001, Tsai et al., 2002. Taken together, in contrast to positive emotions that are related to sensory pleasures or the removal of a distressing experience, effects of emotional responding to goal attainment point to - and -adrenergic as well as cholinergic sympathetic activation effects (for a detailed review of autonomic response patterns in positive emotions, see Kreibig, this issue).
In the present study, we investigated emotional responding to success in an achievement context. In particular, self-reported situational appraisal and emotional feelings as well as psychophysiological responding (cardiovascular, electrodermal, and respiratory) were assessed in response to goal striving and goal attainment. Appraisals of goal relevance and goal conduciveness were experimentally manipulated. To this end, participants worked on a need-related task (i.e., high perceived importance), on which they subsequently received manipulated performance feedback. This feedback indicated better than average performance in comparison with a meaningful reference group, resulting in a success experience (i.e., high perceived satisfaction). To disintegrate goal striving from goal attainment processes, the task itself was constructed to be ambiguous, making it impossible for participants to estimate how well they did before receiving feedback. Task framing and task feedback were hypothesized to influence the person’s appraisal of the situation that, in combination with an individual’s goal representations, determines motivational effort investment in task performance as well as emotional responding to performance feedback, respectively. In contrast to standard laboratory tasks of emotion induction, such as film watching, slide viewing, music presentation, or imagery, in which participants are passive in the emotion-eliciting situation, this type of manipulation engages the participant, while posing minimal demand characteristics (participants are kept blind to the true interest of the study).
We addressed two hypotheses. First, building on findings of physiological activation in the context of goal striving and goal attainment, the “goal-activation hypothesis” postulated an activation–reactivation pattern of physiological responding in the motivation–emotion sequence: (1) in the context of “do-your-best” instructions, task performance was hypothesized to mobilize maximally justified effort that was expected to be high due to high self-involvement; (2) feedback presentation, characterized by high goal relevance and high goal conduciveness, was expected to elicit positive achievement-related emotions, including interest, joy, pride, and surprise, that were predicted to cause sympathetic activation to prepare for engagement with the environment; (3) subsequent recovery, imposing no action goal, was expected to mobilize no additional effort compared to baseline and to be emotionally neutral. Based on our review of prior research findings, the activation–reactivation response pattern was hypothesized to consist of an initial activation at task performance due to motivation-based resource mobilization, as reflected in -adrenergic myocardial (SBP, HR, and PEP) and cholinergic measures (SCL, SRR), adaptation and habituation to task requirements during subsequent minutes of task performance (Brener, 1987), and a reactivation at feedback presentation due to emotional responding to goal attainment, involving - and -adrenergic cardiovascular measures (SBP, DBP, TPR, HR, and PEP), as well as contribution of emotion-specific effects, as described below. This activation–reactivation pattern can be formally expressed as a discontinuity of functional activation. The framework of growth curve analysis (GCA) applied to time series data of physiological responding during task performance, feedback presentation, and recovery allows to test such a prediction.
Second, the “individual-differences-in-emotion hypothesis” postulated that differential emotional feelings in response to goal attainment are associated with differential physiological response patterns both during goal striving and goal attainment, due to individual differences in goal representations or incentive strength. To test this, an individual-level analysis was applied, where the unit of analysis is defined based on individual responding to the experimental manipulation. To this end, GCA was used to analyze differences in physiological change trajectories between participants based on primary reported emotional feeling in response to feedback presentation. We hypothesized that differential emotion self-report in response to feedback presentation would be associated with differential physiological responding during feedback presentation. Based on our review of the literature, presented in the above section, we particularly expected to find effects on cholinergic electrodermal (SCL, SRR for pride and surprise), parasympathetic (RSA for interest), and respiratory measures (RR for joy). Moreover, we hypothesized that differential emotion self-report in response to feedback presentation would be associated with differential physiological responding during task performance, indicative of variations in motivational intensity, based on individual variations of goal representations (cf. motivational antecedents). Specifically, we expected to find evidence of high motivational engagement during task performance for those individuals who subsequently reported experience of positive achievement-related emotions, whereas individuals who did not report such experience were expected to not show evidence of strong task engagement. On the other hand, individuals reporting different emotions in response to feedback were predicted not to differ in physiological baseline activation, because no action goals are present at baseline.
Section snippets
Participants
Participants were 65 female students from a first-year introductory psychology course, taking part for partial completion of their study requirements. Mean age of participants was 22.3 years ( = 5.8). Participation was anonymous and voluntary.
Due to equipment malfunctioning, three participants had missing data in electrophysiological channels, one of which had also missing data for blood pressure recordings. Data for impedance cardiography was missing for three other participants. The paced
Manipulation check
Appraisal ratings indicated successful manipulation of targeted appraisals of goal relevance and goal conduciveness: On a scale from 1 to 7, the mean importance rating was 4.09 ( = 1.47), , , and the mean satisfaction rating was 6.29 ( = 0.98), , .
Self-reported emotional experience
Frequency of emotion ratings of the Geneva Emotion Wheel by condition indicated experience of relief, interest, and amusement during baseline as well as during recovery and experience of interest, joy, pride, and
Discussion
The present study investigated physiological responding in the context of goal striving and goal attainment. We addressed two hypotheses: the “goal-activation hypothesis” postulated an activation–reactivation pattern of physiological activity in response, first, to goal striving and, second, to goal attainment, based on the assumption of activation of an action goal in an achievement context; the “individual-differences-in-emotion hypothesis” postulated that differential emotional responding to
Acknowledgements
We thank two anonymous reviewers and special issue Guest Editor Bruce Friedman for helpful comments on earlier versions of this manuscript. This research was supported by the National Center of Competence in Research (NCCR) Affective Sciences financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation (51NF40-104897) and hosted by the University of Geneva. Some of these data were presented at the annual convention of the Association for Psychological Science (May 2008) and the conference of the
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