Does multimedia learning theory extend to middle-school students?
Introduction
The myriad challenges for young readers when encountering science texts are well documented and include expository text structure (Graesser, Singer, & Trabasso, 1994), a density of technical terms and vocabulary, grammatical complexity, intricate non-linear relationships (e.g., an ecosystem), and abstract concepts (e.g., bonding of atoms) (Fang, 2006, Graesser et al., 1994). Among the oft-criticized science textbooks, middle-school science texts stand out as particularly flawed and challenging for their intended readers (Hubisz, 2000). To further complicate the issue of difficult science texts, observations in middle-school classes reveal that students are expected to independently comprehend their textbooks, with little or no teacher scaffolding (Davey, 1988, Radcliffe et al., 2004).
Recently, one response to create more accessible and appealing science texts is by the addition of graphical information. Within the past decade, examinations of science texts reveal a marked increase in both the density and variety of graphical types featured (Martins, 2002, Walpole, 1999). However, the assumption that graphical representations (termed hereafter as graphics) will make science more accessible for younger students has not yet been substantiated by research. Skepticism exists among some science educators regarding the helpful results of such efforts because the challenge of interpreting graphical displays in science can be profound for even skilled adults (Bowen and Roth, 2002, Kress and van Leeuwen, 1996). In fact, in the critique of middle-school science texts, Hubisz (2000) suggested that the increase of adjuncts (e.g., photos, graphs, and diagrams) can reduce the middle-school reader’s understanding of the science because students at that age are not skilled at integrating information from multiple sources and may become distracted by the intended visual scaffolding. However, the problem may not be entirely developmental in nature because Hubisz (2000) also criticizes the quality of the graphics offered in such texts.
In contrast, within the realm of adult readers, Mayer and colleagues’ work has established a set of designing principles, deemed the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, for creating graphics which consistently facilitates learners’ comprehension of science (Mayer, 2001). These principles were derived by work with college-aged readers on specifically designed texts and have not been directly applied to a younger population. Therefore, I aimed to apply the principles derived from Mayer and Gallini’s (1990) influential study about diagram design, to middle-school science materials and test the designs with young readers. This was not a direct replication as I translated the work to a typical classwork/homework setting in which students are expected to independently read a science text and interpret the corresponding graphics.
Section snippets
Theoretical rationale
Dual Coding Theory (DCT) (Paivio, 1986, Sadoski and Paivio, 2001, Sadoski and Paivio, 2004), a theory of cognition as applied to reading, underlies this work. To maintain congruence with Mayer’s work (Mayer & Gallini, 1990), it should be noted that DCT serves as the foundation for the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2001, Mayer and Sims, 1994), and that Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning does not account for all aspects of reading comprehension.
To briefly summarize the role
Advantages of using graphical representations
The spatial nature of graphics benefits learners in three ways: (a) to guide attention to relevant information in the text; (b) to facilitate building internal connections between ideas in the text; and (c) to facilitate building external connections between ideas in the text and the learner’s background knowledge (Mayer & Gallini, 1990). For example, when a graphic presents redundant, but salient, information from the text, it signals to the reader that this information is very important. When
Research questions
First, this study extended Mayer and Gallini’s (1990) work with adults to answer the question: Q1. What types of diagram design facilitate the comprehension of science texts for middle grade students? As did Mayer and Gallini, this study used three types of diagram illustration and labeling: (a) the parts of the cycle, (b) the steps of the cycle, or (c) both the parts and steps of the cycle.
Second, in addition to manipulating the graphical design, I investigated the interplay of the text and
Participants
The participants in this experimental study were 160 students (90 male; 70 female) recruited from 11 sixth-grade language-arts classes in a suburban school system in the mid-Atlantic region. The mean age of the students was 12.0 years. Sixty four percent of the students self-identified as Caucasian/White (non-Hispanic), 15% as Black, 8% as Asian, 2% as Hispanic, 2% as Native American, and 4% as Bi-racial. Five percent did not report race. All of the students spoke English at home, although 11%
Life-science texts
The mean scores and standard deviations are displayed in Table 1. According to the first ANOVA analysis, both diagram design F(3, 168) = 3.43, p < .05, partial η2 = .05 and reading level F(2, 168) = 18.01, p < .05, partial η2 = .18, significantly contributed to passage comprehension. There was no interaction. Using Dunnet’s post-hoc one-way comparison against the control group, both the parts diagram (p < .05) and the steps diagram (p < .05) outperformed the control. The parts-and-steps condition did not
Complexity of results
This study explored the extent to which robust multimedia findings from science diagram design with college-aged readers would (a) translate to the design of instructional materials for a younger population and simultaneously and (b) generalize across texts. Although the principles of Mayer’s Multimedia Theory is often used for designing instructional materials for young learners, the principles have been rarely tested with a young population. In contrast to the conclusive results from the
Conclusions and implications for future research
The results of this study imply that Mayer’s Theory of Multimedia Design (2001) may not be directly translated to younger audiences in a classroom setting. The extent of the generalizability of the theory needs to be explored in greater detail before applying such principles of design to instructional materials for young audiences. Additionally, the recent exuberance, perhaps irrational exuberance, regarding the increased inclusion of visual displays within science textbooks may not actually
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