Resilience in children and youth: A review
Highlights
► We review the origins of resilience based on research. ► We review recent advances related to resilience. ► We examine several models of resilience as reported in the literature. ► We review recommendations related to measuring resilience. ► Several research-based interventions are reviewed.
Introduction
In this modern, complex society, it has become common to identify certain children as at-risk of failing to succeed because of the hardships in their young lives (Rak & Patterson, 1996). Poverty, violence, substance abuse, family dissonance, and illness represent a few potential vulnerabilities. According to Rak and Patterson, researchers are concerned that at risk children stand only slight chances of attaining their full potential as adults. Furthermore, there are worries that at risk individuals will become dysfunctional to the point of being incapable of supporting themselves or establishing rewarding relationships with others. However, many children who encounter stress and adversity in life fair well despite their exposure to severe challenges (Alvord and Grados, 2005, Brooks, 2006, Masten, 2007, Masten, 2011, Masten et al., 1991, Masten and Coatsworth, 1998, Rak and Patterson, 1996, Werner, 1986). Children who succeed in spite of adversity have been identified as resilient; possessing certain strengths and benefiting from protective factors that help them overcome adverse conditions and thrive.
It is essential to understand what environmental factors place children and youth at-risk as well as what protective factors may be nurtured to improve and support resilience in children (Alvord & Grados, 2005). This paper offers a review of the literature on resilience beginning in the 1970s to the present. Much of the literature from the 1970s is based on monumental longitudinal studies dating back to the 1950s. The paper begins by reviewing risk factors including biological and environmental influences. Resilience is defined and the origins and recent advances of resilience are delineated. Protective factors are then discussed, specifically, individual characteristics, family conditions, environmental supports, and other factors associated with what we deem as resilience. In addition, we highlight models of resilience, issues for consideration when researching resilience, and measures of resilience. Finally, individual, family, and social environment resilience-based interventions are examined.
Section snippets
Risk factors
In the medical field, the concept of risk has long been common; however, the acceptance of the concept began to emerge in the 1970s in the behavioral sciences (Jens & Gordon, 1991). Over the past three decades, signs of trouble (e.g., rates of divorce, teenage pregnancy, poverty) have materialized for child development in the United States (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998) causing much attention to the status of children regarding school success, behavior, and physical and mental health.
Children and
Resilience defined
According to Alvord and Grados (2005), numerous definitions of resilience require conditions of an identified risk or challenge followed by some defined measure of positive outcome. However, debate remains concerning what constitutes resilient behavior and how to best measure successful adaptation to hardship. Resilience is not an one-dimensional, dichotomous attribute that an individual has or does not have. It has been suggested that a resilient individual must show positive outcomes across
Origins of resilience
Historically, the origins of resilience have deep roots in the field of medicine; however, research on resilience in the behavioral sciences began to emerge around 1970 (Cicchetti, 2006, Cicchetti and Curtis, 2006, Masten, 2007, Masten, 2011, Masten and Obradovic, 2006). According to Masten (2011), pioneering scientists contended that critical aspects of human function and development, crucial for understanding and promoting prevention of, resistance to, or recovery from psychopathology, had
Recent advances
According to Curtis and Cicchetti (2003), theoretical treatments of resilience have concentrated almost entirely on psychosocial levels of analysis to develop explanatory models. The developing research in the area of resilience incorporates numerous areas (Alvord & Grados, 2005). Some investigations have included children from various cultures. For example, Hart, Hofmann, Edelstein, and Keller (1997) set out to replicate findings in another culture, and Grotberg (1995) launched an
Protective factors
According to Rutter (1979), … any children do not succumb to deprivation, and it is important that we determine why this is so and what it is that protects them from hazards they face (p. 70). Garmezy et al. (1984) and Rutter (1986) stressed the crucial need to understand the impact of life experiences on children. Furthermore, it is essential to understand why those experiences provoke such a range of responses in different individuals.
Resilience is inhibited by risk factors and promoted by
Models of resilience
Models of resilience have been identified to explain how individual and environmental factors function to reduce or offset the adverse effects of risk factors (Fergus and Zimmerman, 2005, Garmezy et al., 1984, Rutter, 1985, Zimmerman and Arunkumar, 1994). Garmezy et al. (1984) proposed three models to describe the impact of stress and personal attributes on the quality of adaptation: (a) compensatory model, (b) challenge model, and (c) protective factor model. Researchers have defined other
Issues when researching resilience
According to Fergus and Zimmerman (2005), there are several issues related to research in resilience causing confusion within the field and igniting criticism of resilience theory. There are varying definitions of resilience and central terminology, which slow the development of the field (Luthar et al., 2000). The authors recommend developing a common language to bring the field to the next level. Although some researchers believe resilience is a trait, resilience is not a quality of an
Measuring resilience
There are numerous ways of assessing resilience. Checklists, scales, and interviews have been developed to assess resilience, risk and protective factors (e.g., Baruth and Carroll, 2002, Vance et al., 1998), or competence in one or more domains (e.g., Ewart, Jorgensen, Suchday, Chen, & Matthews, 2002). However, Naglieri and LeBuffle (2005) recommend only using standardized approaches for measuring resilience.
Resilience-based interventions
Without intervention, youth facing significant adversities have a greater likelihood of encountering problems as they navigate their developmental paths (Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000). A key idea is that interventions need to focus on developing assets and resources for those exposed to risk rather than concentrating on risk amelioration (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005; Luthar & Cicchetti; Yates et al., 2003). In the past, practitioners focused on documenting predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing
Conclusion
Assets and resources that assist children and youth overcome adverse effects of risks differ according to the population studied, context, and outcome (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005). However, several common themes appear. Parental factors such as support, monitoring, and communication skills are crucial resources for youth. Although individuals with self-confidence and social skills are slightly prone to being resilient irrespective of the risk or outcome, it is essential that resilience-based
Staci M. Zolkoski is a doctoral candidate in the leadership program, specializing in the area of emotional/behavioral disorders, at the University of North Texas. Prior to beginning full-time doctoral studies, she taught inclusion-based general education in Title I elementary schools.
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Staci M. Zolkoski is a doctoral candidate in the leadership program, specializing in the area of emotional/behavioral disorders, at the University of North Texas. Prior to beginning full-time doctoral studies, she taught inclusion-based general education in Title I elementary schools.
Lyndal M. Bullock is a Regents Professor in Special Education at the University of North Texas where he coordinates the graduate leadership program in emotional/behavioral disorder. Over the years, he has contributed significantly to the literature and leadership in professional education associations.