Elsevier

Computers & Education

Volume 59, Issue 4, December 2012, Pages 1153-1161
Computers & Education

Re-exploring game-assisted learning research: The perspective of learning theoretical bases

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.05.003Get rights and content

Abstract

Previous literature reviews or meta-analysis based studies on game-assisted learning have provided important results, but few studies have considered the importance of learning theory, and coverage of papers after 2007 is scant. This study presents a systematic review of the literature using a meta-analysis approach to provide a more comprehensive analysis and synthesis of relevant studies based on four orientations of learning theories and principles: behaviorism, cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism. Major findings of this study include that the majority of published studies were not based on learning theory and the development of learning theory orientations has prompted more studies to focus on constructivism and humanism than on behaviorism and cognitivism. In addition, most studies adopted a descriptive approach, followed by experimental methods and surveys, and most presented positive outcomes. These findings not only advance understanding of game-assisted learning from the important perspective of learning theory, but also provide useful insights for researchers and educators in issues related to game-assisted learning.

Highlights

► The majority of studies failed to use a foundation of learning theory. ► Studies focused on constructivism and humanism than on behaviorism and cognitivism. ► Studies adopt a descriptive approach, followed by experimental research and surveys. ► Positive outcomes predominate studies based on learning theory.

Introduction

Rapid technological developments over the past few decades have made digital game devices more affordable, while the tools used to develop the games have become much easier to use. From the viewpoint of assisted learning, certain characteristics of games (e.g., the use of action rather than explanation) can facilitate learning and increase learning performance (Coller & Scott, 2009; Holland, Jenkins, & Squire, 2003; Kebritchi & Hirumi, 2008; Pasin & Giroux, 2011). Commercial games based on pedagogy (e.g., SimCity) are widely used in education and, more importantly, researchers and educators have become increasingly willing to develop pedagogical game-based applications for their courses. For example, de Jong and van Joolingen (1998) developed a game simulation to teach about collisions in physics. Magerko, Heeter, and Medler (2008) designed a prototype, called Super Covert Removal of Unwanted Bacteria (SCRUB), to assist the learning of concepts in microbiology. In light of these developments, game-assisted learning has become one of most important approaches for assisted instruction.

The increasing prominence of game-assisted learning has attracted increased interest from researchers. Kebritchi and Hirumi (2008) and Ke (2009) showed that the number of studies dealing with game-assisted learning has gradually increased over the past few decades, and other researchers have tried to review and synthesize the results of past studies. We found seven published studies which survey studies in game-assisted learning using a literature review or meta-analysis approach (i.e., Dempsey, Rasmussen, & Lucassen, 1996; Emes, 1997; Hays, 2005; Ke, 2009; Randel, Morris, Wetzel, & Whitehill, 1992; Vogel et al., 2006; Wolfe, 1997). The results are summarized here chronologically.

Randel et al. (1992) reviewed studies from 1963 to 1991, comparing the instructional effectiveness of games to conventional classroom instruction. The scarcity of related research in this period may be due in part to reduced support for research projects on the use of technology in classrooms (U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1988). Math was singled out as the subject area with the most significant results favoring games, but only eight studies had adequate controls. Thirty-three of 46 studies on the use of social science-related games showed a difference in learning outcomes between the use of games and conventional classroom instruction.

Dempsey et al. (1996) reviewed studies from 1982 to 1994, finding that the effectiveness of games varied depending on gaming domain (e.g., commerce, military, health care, etc.), measurement, learner characteristics and media, which has also broadly diversified with the development of new technologies. The authors found that combined use of different instructional modes (e.g., computer accompanied by live instructor) had increased over time, while others still relied primarily on video. Although the results may have been influenced by other factors (e.g., teacher bias, the Hawthorne effect, test instruments, and time difference for treatments), game-assisted learning was found to encourage exploration of new skills, promote self-esteem, help develop practice skills and improve attitudes toward learning.

Emes (1997) literature review searched the MEDLINE and PSYCHINFO databases of all English language articles from 1966 to 1996, seeking to provide mental health professionals with an up-to date review of the literature regarding the effects of video game playing on the psychological well-being of children. The use of video games as research objects was first introduced in the 1970s, but gained little traction until the late 1980s when the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) prompted a surge in video game sales. Results found no direct relationship between video game playing and psychological or academic performance, though it suggested violent video games could aggravate aggressive tendencies in some children. Based on the same method, Wolfe (1997) explored the effectiveness of business games in strategic management course work between 1986 and 1997. The results showed that, in every study cited, particular business gaming applications produced significantly positive learning outcomes.

Hays (2005) reviewed 48 empirical studies on the effectiveness of instructional games published between 1973 and 2005. Results revealed that K-12 learners might find useful games useful for learning math, social sciences, vocabulary and motivation, but that no information existed for game-related learning for other disciplines (e.g., health and geography). In addition, games were found to be useful in teaching social sciences, physics, electronics and engineering principles to college students and, in the workplace, games showed positive learning effects on teaching attention, periscope skills, technical skills and so on. However, no evidence indicates that games are the preferred instructional method in all situations.

Based on the meta-analysis approach, Vogel et al. (2006) investigated the relative strengths of games and interactive simulations against traditional teaching methods. Results indicated that, across populations and situations, games and interactive simulations produce better cognitive gain outcomes. Ke (2009) used a qualitative meta-analysis approach to systematically review and synthesize the theories, methods, and findings of both qualitative and quantitative studies on computer-based instructional games between 1985 and 2007. Results argued that the best models or best practices for the design and application of instructional gaming could be formed by carefully aligning and integrating the three clusters of key variables: learning, learner, and instructional game design. Table 1 shows the major results and findings of the seven studies.

Smith (1999) proposed four orientations of learning theories and representative principles: behaviorism, cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism (see also Amstutz, 1999; Conole, Dyke, Oliver, & Seale, 2004; Guy, 1999; Jarvis, Holford, & Griffin, 2003; Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004; Merriam, 2001). Each orientation is characterized by different learning theories and representative principles, and these orientations may be related to the surge of interest in using computer games for learning.

Behaviorism is primarily associated with the work of Edward Thorndike (1913) and Ivan Pavlov (1927) and was among the first modern orientations. Behaviorists consider learning to be produced by stimulation and reinforcement. Behaviorism is based on three main assumptions: first, learning is manifested by a change in behavior; second, the environment shapes behavior; and third, the principles of contiguity and reinforcement are central to explaining the learning process (Grippin & Peters, 1983; Shlechter, 1991; Watson, 1997). Behaviorism includes three representative learning theories and principles: (1) direct instruction, proposed by Zig Engelmann in 1964, (2) programmed instruction, proposed by Skinner in 1954, and (3) social learning theory, proposed by Bandura in 1965.

Cognitivists, on the other hand, consider learning to be more than simple stimulation and reinforcement, but to involve thinking (Moore & Fitz, 1993). Cognitivism is based on two main assumptions: that the memory system is an active, organized processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). In the cognitive paradigm, the mind is essentially a ‘black box’ that should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an information processor (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2008). Cognitivism can be represented by the following major learning theories and principles: (1) attribution theory, developed by Weiner in 1974, (2) elaboration theory, developed by Reigeluth in 1983, (3) the stage theory of cognitive development, developed by Piaget in 1969, and (4) the theory of conditioned learning, developed by Gagne in 1965.

Humanism emerged after the 1960s and focuses on the freedom, value, dignity, and potential of persons (Combs, 1981). According to Huitt (2001), the central assumption of humanism is that individuals act with intentionality and values. This differs from the behaviorist notion of operant conditioning and the cognitivists' belief that the discovery of knowledge or construction of meaning is central to learning (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2008). According to humanists, learning should be student-centered and personalized, and the educator should act as a facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are considered key aspects of learning, and the goal is to develop self-actualized individuals in a cooperative, supportive environment. Humanism involves an important principle of experiential learning as proposed by Kolb (1984).

Finally, constructivism considers learning to be an active, constructive process. Constructivists view the learner as an information constructor: individuals actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy, & Perry, 1995). New information is linked to prior knowledge; thus, mental representations are subjective (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Resnick, 1987). Constructivism is represented by the following learning theories and principles: (1) social development theory, developed by Vygotsky in 1962, (2) problem-based learning (PBL) developed within medical schools in the 1960s, (3) cognitive apprenticeship as an approach in which students are enculturated into authentic practices through activity and social interaction (Brown et al., 1989), (4) discovery learning as a method of inquiry-based instruction that is considered a constructivist-based approach to education (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2008), (5) case-based learning (CBL) as an offshoot of constructivism, (6) situated learning theory, proposed by Lave and Wenger (1990), (7) activity theory based on the anthropological/psychological theories of Leontjew and Vygotsky, and (8) actor–network theory developed by Latour (1987).

Fig. 1 and Table 2 present the classifications and characteristics of the four orientations of learning theories and their representative principles.

Section snippets

Research purpose

The above-mentioned studies identify results and syntheses crucial to understanding issues related to game-assisted learning. However, few studies have considered the importance of the theoretical bases of learning in reviewing and synthesizing the relevant literature and there have been few investigations of the related literature after 2007. This paper investigates the theoretical bases of learning from the related literature and presents four orientations of learning theories and their

Method

This study adopts the meta-analysis approach developed by Glass (1976), Hossler and Scalese-Love (1989) and Ke (2009) through the following steps: defining game-assisted learning, inclusion/exclusion criteria, data sources and search strategies, and data coding and extraction.

Results and discussion

Overall, studies based on a foundation of learning theory included 21 conference proceedings papers, two book chapters, 58 journal articles, and 10 studies from game reports. Based on the two research questions of the present study, the results of the meta-analysis were analyzed and synthesized further, as discussed below.

Conclusions

Previous literature reviews or meta-analyses for game-assisted learning have provided valuable results, but have largely ignored the importance of a foundation in learning theory, and articles published since 2007 have largely been excluded from analysis. We have re-explored game-assisted learning from the perspective of four orientations of learning theory: behaviorism, cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism. We have also extended the investigation to include related literature to 2009.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the National Science Council of Taiwan, R.O.C., for financially supporting this research under contract no. NSC 99-2511-S-151-002-MY2.

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