The sustainable restoration of lakes—towards the challenges of the Water Framework Directive

doi:10.1016/j.ecohyd.2013.12.001

Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology

Volume 14, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 68-74

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2013.12.001 Get rights and content

Abstract

Most in-lake restoration projects use deeply intrusive methods. They include the removal of bottom sediments and the use of high doses of precipitants. They are very radical, causing extinction of many organisms, and are very expensive. Alternative methods described in this paper are inexpensive, easy to use, effective, and sustainable (energy-efficient, not destructive for most of the biota). They have been applied to three lakes located in Poznań and the surrounding area (Western Poland) and their effectiveness has been documented. They include: (i) use of biomanipulation to increase trophic influence of zooplankton on phytoplankton, and small doses of iron sulphate to reduce phosphorus content in the water column, used in Maltański Reservoir, (ii) delivering water rich in nitrates from small tributaries to the deepest part of the lake, thus increasing redox potential and limiting the release of phosphorus from bottom sediments, used in Uzarzewskie Lake, (iii) oxygenation of hypolimnetic waters using wind aerators, iron treatment with small doses of coagulant and biomanipulation, used in Durowskie Lake. Use of limited doses of an innovative solid phosphorus precipitant called Sinobent^® is also possible. These methods, in accordance with the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, increased the diversity of flora and fauna in the lakes and contributed to improvements in water quality. Simultaneous application of several methods, which prevented feedback mechanisms, increased the efficiency of lake restoration.

Introduction

According to the Water Framework Directive (WFD) (European Community, 2000) all water bodies should achieve good ecological and chemical status before 2015. In Poland there are 1036 lakes above 50 ha that are of interest under the WFD and only about half of them meet these requirements (Ciecierska and Dynowska, in press). To achieve improvements in such a large number of lakes in a short time, appropriate tools and effective methods are indispensable. It is possible to use many methods to protect lake ecosystems. The most important are: (i) diversion of municipal and industrial sewage (both raw and treated), (ii) thorough treatment of storm waters before discharge to the receiving water, (iii) limitation of input of diffuse water pollution from agriculture, by creation of buffer zones, use of sustainable or ecological agriculture, reduction of water and wind erosion of soils, (iv) reduction of the nutrient load reaching the lake by building preliminary reservoirs on inflow rivers to intercept nutrients. In some cases, protection measures alone are sufficiently effective in improving the status of degraded lakes. The example of Lake Washington is well known. About ten years after diversion of sewage effluent previously discharged to the lake from Seattle and other towns, the lake improved in terms of water quality (Kajak, 1998). However, Lake Washington is a large and deep lake (88 km² and 65 m max. depth) and had ancillary mechanisms involving changes in the food webs that contributed to improvements of water quality. Smaller and shallower lakes may or may not spontaneously return to good ecological status after the application of protective measures only. The example of Lake Sławskie, with a surface area of 8.28 km² and 12.3 m maximum depth, which has been studied for several years, confirms that it is possible. The lake was polluted for many years by sewage from the city of Sława, which resulted in cyanobacterial water blooms and the closing of the bathing areas. The construction of a new sewage treatment plant in 2008, and transfer of treated wastewater to filtration ponds several kilometres distant from the lake, led to a gradual improvement of its water quality (Kozak et al., 2012).

In many cases, however, protection measures are not sufficient and lakes need additional in-lake restoration treatment. These methods, in order to meet the requirements of the WFD, should be inexpensive, easy to use, effective, and sustainable (energy-efficient, not destructive for most of the biota). Many technical and biological methods of lake restoration are known, but only a few of them fulfil the requirements stated above. Some of such innovative methods have been tested and improved in several lakes situated near Poznań (Wielkopolska Region, West Poland) by our team and a brief account of them is given in this paper.

Section snippets

The Maltański Reservoir case study

This reservoir is a shallow and polymictic water body with an area of 64 ha, 5.5 m max. depth and mean depth of 3.1 m, situated near the centre of Poznań. It is used for recreation and water sports, but since its filling with water in 1990, it has been hypertrophic with cyanobacterial water blooms, owing to a high load of nutrients from the main tributary, the River Cybina. Creation in the river course of four small preliminary reservoirs did not result in any apparent reduction of the nutrient

The Lake Uzarzewskie case study

Lake Uzarzewskie is a small lake, with an area of 10.4 ha and a maximum depth of 7.2 m, but is thermally stratified. It is hypertrophic owing to a high external load of nutrients from its agricultural catchment area, treated sewage from the village of Uzarzewo, and outflow from a fish farm. It was treated in 2006–2007 with iron salts. As a result, internal loading was temporarily decreased, but water quality has improved only slightly. This was due to a deoxygenated meta- and hypolimnion with

The Lake Durowskie case study

Lake Durowskie is a post-glacial lake, thermally stratified, with an area of 143.7 ha and a maximum depth of 14.6 m. In one part it is surrounded by a forest, but otherwise it is adjacent to a city. It is important for recreation for the local population, especially for swimming and fishing. By 2008, the lake had large cyanobacterial water blooms, lack of oxygen and presence of hydrogen sulphide in the hypolimnion, and high external and internal loading of phosphorus. Restoration of the lake

Discussion

The use of minimally invasive measures for lake restoration enables a gradual reconstruction of the composition of communities, from phytoplankton and zooplankton to benthic macroinvertebrates and macrophytes. The most important change is the reduction of cyanobacteria, which allows use of the water by people even if other groups of phytoplanktonic organisms are still relatively frequent. Disappearance of harmful toxic metabolites released by many species of cyanobacteria (Mankiewicz-Boczek et

Conclusions

It is possible to use sustainable lake restoration methods which are cheap, easy to use, effective, energy-efficient and not destructive for most of the biota. These include the use of wind aerators, biomanipulation, iron treatment with small doses of iron sulphate or chloride, and supplying the hypolimnetic water with water from tributaries that are rich in nitrates. Simultaneous application of several methods, which prevents feedback mechanisms, increases the efficiency of restoration.

Financial disclosure

This research was partly supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland), grant nos. N 305 10831/3632 and NN305 372838.

Conflict of Interest

None

Acknowledgments

The authors are very grateful to Professor Brian Moss for his kindly review of the manuscript, which led to a substantial improvement of the final version of this paper.

References (29)

S. Meis et al.
Sediment amendment with Phoslock^® in Clatto Reservoir (Dundee, UK): investigating changes in sediment elemental composition and phosphorus fractionation
Journal of Environmental Management
(2012)
M. Zalewski
Ecohydrology: process-oriented thinking towards sustainable river basins
Ecohydrology and Hydrobiology
(2013)
S. Celewicz-Gołdyn
Influence of Ceratophyllum demersum L. on phytoplankton structure in a shallow eutrophic lake
Oceanological and Hydrobiological Studies
(2010)
Ciecierska, H., Dynowska, M., in press. Klasyfikacje jakości wód powierzchniowych. (Classifications of surface water...
R. Dondajewska et al.
Zmiany jakości wód Zbiornika Maltańskiego w latach 1993–2008
R. Dondajewska et al.
Ograniczenie wydzielania fosforu z osadów dennych oraz zmiany w składzie fitoplanktonu pod wpływem nowych preparatów chemicznych w warunkach in-situ
R. Dondajewska et al.
Zmiany jakości wody Jeziora Uzarzewskiego na skutek zabiegów rekultywacyjnych
European Community
Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy
Official Journal of the European Union
(2000)
R. Gołdyn
The role of preliminary reservoirs in the protection of the Maltański Reservoir
Archiv für Hydrobiologie–Beiheft Ergebnisse der Limnologie
(1994)
R. Gołdyn
(2000)

R. Gołdyn et al.

Wpływ nowych preparatów chemicznych na ograniczanie wydzielania fosforu z osadów dennych

R. Gołdyn et al.

Biomanipulation in the Maltański Reservoir

International Review of Hydrobiology

(1998)

R. Gołdyn et al.

The response of Lake Durowskie ecosystem to restoration measures

Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences

(2013)

E.M. Gross et al.

Searching for allelopathic effects of submerged macrophytes on phytoplankton – state of the art and open questions

Hydrobiologia

(2007)

Cited by (80)

The impact of iron coagulant on the behavior and biochemistry of freshwater mussels Anodonta cygnea and Unio tumidus during lake restoration
2022, Journal of Environmental Management
Iron (Fe) treatment is one of the most commonly used methods to restore eutrophic lakes and reservoirs. The Fe-based coagulants dosage results in an almost immediate improvement in water quality at a relatively low cost. However, the effects of the application of coagulants are not always predictable, and the scale of the risks is not fully understood. The dosage of coagulants changes the chemical and physical properties of water, thereby affecting aquatic biocenoses. In this study, several laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of Fe-based coagulant dosage on two bivalves species: Anodonta anatina and Unio tumidus. Their ability to efficiently filter water and reduce seston makes them a key component of aquatic ecosystems in terms of maintaining proper ecological health and stable functioning. Behavioral response, biochemical parameters, and body chemistry changes in mussels exposed to different doses of coagulant were surveyed. A dose-dependent reduction in filtration activity of both species was observed. As early as 10 g Fe m² (which is a moderate dose used in lakes restoration), mussels of both species almost completely reduced their filtration activity and remained with closed valves for several subsequent days. Significant Fe accumulation in muscles of bivalves exposed to coagulant was also observed. This was particularly the case when very high doses of coagulant were applied. Then, the iron content in leg muscles of both species increased over fourfold. At the same time, a decrease in muscles calcium and phosphorus content was observed. No symptoms of oxidative stress (TBARS, H₂O₂) after mussels exposure to coagulants were found. The results suggest that the application of Fe-based coagulant for water ecosystem restoration may be a threat to the mussels population. These findings are significant for decisions on the selection of restoration methods for a specific lake.
Annual water residence time effects on thermal structure: A potential lake restoration measure?
2022, Journal of Environmental Management
Innovative methods to combat internal loading issues in eutrophic lakes are urgently needed to speed recovery and restore systems within legislative deadlines. In stratifying lakes, internal phosphorus loading is particularly problematic during the summer stratified period when anoxia persists in the hypolimnion, promoting phosphorus release from the sediment. A novel method to inhibit stratification by reducing residence times is proposed as a way of controlling the length of the hypolimnetic anoxic period, thus reducing the loading of nutrients from the sediments into the water column. However, residence time effects on stratification length in natural lakes are not well understood. We used a systematic modelling approach to investigate the viability of changes to annual water residence time in affecting lake stratification and thermal dynamics in Elterwater, a small stratifying eutrophic lake in the northwest of England. We found that reducing annual water residence times shortened and weakened summer stratification. Based on finer-scale dynamics of lake heat fluxes and water column stability we propose seasonal or sub-seasonal management of water residence time is needed for the method to be most effective at reducing stratification as a means of controlling internal nutrient loading.
A critical review on operation and performance of source water control strategies for cyanobacterial blooms: Part II-mechanical and biological control methods
2021, Harmful Algae
This review summarizes current knowledge on mechanical (artificial mixing, hypolimnetic aeration, dredging, and sonication) and biological (biomanipulation, macrophytes, and straws) methods for the management of cyanobacterial blooms in drinking water sources. Emphasis has been given to (i) the mechanism of cyanobacterial control, (ii) successful and unsuccessful case studies, and (iii) factors influencing successful implementation. Most mechanical and biological control strategies offer long-term control. However, their application can be cost-prohibitive and treatment efficacy is influenced by source water geometry and continual nutrient inputs from external sources. When artificial mixing and hypolimnetic oxygenation units are optimized based on source water characteristics, observed water quality benefits included increased dissolved oxygen contents, reduced internal loading of nutrients, and lower concentrations of reduced ions . Treatment efficacy during oxygenation and aeration was derailed by excessive sedimentation of organic matter and sediment characteristics such as low Fe/P ratios. Dredging is beneficial for contaminated sediment removal, but it is too costly to be a practical bloom control strategy for most systems. Sonication control methods have contradictory findings requiring further research to evaluate the efficacy and applicability for field-scale control of cyanobacteria. Biological control methods such as biomanipulation offer long-term treatment benefits; however, investigations on the mechanisms of field-scale cyanobacterial control are still limited, particularly with the use of macrophytes and straws. Each control method has site-specific strengths, limitations, and ecological impacts. Reduction of external nutrient inputs should still be a significant focus of restoration efforts as treatment benefits from mechanical and biological control were commonly offset by continued nutrient inputs.
Calcite as a candidate for non-invasive phosphorus removal from lakes
2021, Ecohydrology and Hydrobiology
Citation Excerpt :
Numerous P binding agents have been applied worldwide, with the most commonly used coagulants (such as Al or Fe salts) and a solid material - lanthanum modified bentonite (Cooke et al., 2005; Gibbs & Hickey, 2018). The method has been generally proven to be successful in reducing P release from sediment (Gołdyn et al., 2014; Dithmer et al., 2016; Huser et al., 2016; Grochowska et al., 2019), although multiple applications of P binding agent are frequently required to achieve desirable effect (Lürling & Van Oosterhout, 2013; Zamparas & Zacharias, 2014). Unfortunately, some risks and uncertainties are related to this technology, including translocation of P binding agent and its accumulation in non-target areas of the lake`s bottom (Van Hullebusch et al., 2002; Huser et al., 2016) and limited longevity resulting from resuspension, bioturbation or change in the physio-chemical conditions or aging (Cooke et al., 1993; Hupfer & Hilt, 2008; Reitzel et al., 2013; Dithmer et al., 2016; Welch et al., 2017; Van Oosterhout et al., 2020).
Calcite (Cc) has been tested as a potential phosphorus (P) binding agent to be used for non-invasive P removal from lakes. In this approach P binding agent is placed in the water column and subsequently removed together with the sorbed P. Mechanism of orthophosphate (OP) sorption onto Cc and Cc behaviour were investigated under epilimnetic and hypolimnetic temperature, pH and saturation with respect to Cc (25°C, pH = 9.0, saturation index for Cc (SI_Cc) = 1.4, and 10°C, pH = 7.1, SI_Cc = -0.7, respectively) at an initial OP concentration of ∼ 1 mg PO₄³⁻ L⁻¹ in the range of Cc dosages of 0.01–20.1 g L⁻¹, resulting in OP:Cc mass ratios of 0.06–85 mg:g. Prevailing OP binding processes were adsorption and precipitation, depending on OP:Cc mass ratio (adsorption predominated at low OP:Cc and precipitation at high OP:Cc). Under epilimnetic conditions, approximately five times lower OP:Cc mass ratio was needed to induce precipitation as compared to hypolimnion, indicating at a greater probability of precipitation in epilimnion, while adsorption was more likely to occur in hypolimnion. In epilimnion, co-precipitation of OP was also involved together with adsorption. Calculated maximum adsorption was 35% higher in epilimnion, whereas obtained precipitation rates (measured as unit sorption) were 87% higher, showing promoting effect of epilimnetic conditions on OP removal. Application of Cc into epilimnion will result in a pH drop which can reduce occurrence of cyanobacteria. Application of Cc into hypolimnion will result in its partial dissolution, while most of the applied Cc mass will be removable after the finished treatment.
Warming of lowland Polish lakes under future climate change scenarios and consequences for ice cover and mixing dynamics
2021, Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies
Citation Excerpt :
Besides presenting an overview of the expected impact of climate change on LSWT, ice cover, and mixing dynamics for several lowland lakes in Poland, the present analysis is also aimed at being used as a reference for identifying the most vulnerable lakes where detailed studies should be focused. Similarly, the availability of climate change projections of lakes’ thermal evolution are expected to be useful for prioritizing the numerous local level restoration projects aimed at preserving and improving the water quality of these lakes (Łopata et al., 2013; Gołdyn et al., 2014; Dondajewska et al., 2018; Kowalczewska-Madura et al., 2018; Grochowska et al., 2019), supporting the continuity of lake restoration programs in the future years, and helping to revise the undertaken and planned lake management projects in order to make them more effective. Finally, the outcome of the present study is also expected to be useful for ongoing governmental programmes (among others the plan of counteracting effects of droughts) aimed at facing the ongoing and forecasted water deficit.
The study region comprises 25 lowland Polish lakes in the northern part of the country. The studied lakes provide domestic, industrial and agricultural water supply, and are major attractions for tourism, thus playing a significant role in the Polish economy.
The expected impact of future climate change on lake surface water temperature (LSWT) was predicted using the air2water model, which relies solely on daily air temperature (AT) as model input. LSWT and AT observations for the period 1987–2016 were used for model calibration and validation. Then, historical (1987–2005) and future (2006–2100) AT time series from nine EURO-CORDEX climate models were used to project future LSWT under emission scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5.
The results showed that air2water can well reproduce daily LWST with root mean square errors lower than 1 °C on average. The warming trends of both AT and LSWT are expected to be lower than those observed in the past decades (after the 1980s), and ice cover and weak stratification conditions are expected to partially buffer the LSWT response to the high AT warming expected in future winters. However, the overall enduring warming will substantially alter future thermal dynamics, leading to a shortening of ice cover and inverse stratification periods, possibly leading to serious consequences for lake water quality and ecosystem health.
Assessing the toxic effects of magnetic particles used for lake restoration on phytoplankton: A community-based approach
2021, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety
Inactivation by adding different phosphorus (P) adsorbents is one of the most frequently used methods for combating inland water eutrophication. The aim of this work was to assess the toxic effects of novel P adsorbents (magnetic particles, MPs) on the phytoplankton community. An outdoor microcosm experiment, containing lake water and surface sediment from a hypertrophic Mediterranean lake, was carried out following a factorial design (n = 5) with three different treatments: control (C), where no MPs were added; Treatment-Water (T-W) and Treatment-Sediment (T-S). In T-W and T-S treatments, MPs were added on the surface water layer and on the sediment, respectively, to obtain a final concentration of 1.4 g MP L⁻¹. This concentration was based on both the sedimentary mobile P concentration of the study site and the maximum P adsorption capacity of the MPs, obtained from the literature. After 24 h of contact time, the MPs were removed using a magnetic rake. Physicochemical measurements and biological samples were taken after 24 h of exposure to the MPs and at different time points after such exposure (day 2, 7, 21, 35 and 70). Changes in phytoplankton community such as abundance (biovolume and Chla), species composition and taxonomic groups were assessed, as well as changes in the Shannon-Wiener diversity index. Additionally, the eutrophic metric Algae Group Index (AGI), one of the metrics proposed in the Water Framework Directive, was also calculated. Our results indicate that there is no strong evidence to infer that MPs caused an effect on the phytoplankton community, since no significant differences (GLM test; p > 0.05) were found between controls and treatments in any of the studied variables (phytoplankton taxonomic groups, AGI, Chla concentration, biovolume, diversity and community responses). Accordingly, MPs did not cause any toxic effects on the phytoplankton community of the lake, encouraging the use of MPs in a future whole-lake restoration strategy. However, if the final goal of the restoration plan is to combat nuisance cyanobacteria blooms, higher initial MPs doses or repeated MPs applications are required to achieve a reduction in P concentrations below biological thresholds in order to prevent algal blooms.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

Original Research ArticleThe sustainable restoration of lakes—towards the challenges of the Water Framework Directive

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

The Maltański Reservoir case study

The Lake Uzarzewskie case study

The Lake Durowskie case study

Discussion

Conclusions

Financial disclosure

Conflict of Interest

Acknowledgments

Journal of Environmental Management

Ecohydrology and Hydrobiology

Influence of Ceratophyllum demersum L. on phytoplankton structure in a shallow eutrophic lake

Oceanological and Hydrobiological Studies

Zmiany jakości wód Zbiornika Maltańskiego w latach 1993–2008

Ograniczenie wydzielania fosforu z osadów dennych oraz zmiany w składzie fitoplanktonu pod wpływem nowych preparatów chemicznych w warunkach in-situ

Zmiany jakości wody Jeziora Uzarzewskiego na skutek zabiegów rekultywacyjnych

Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy

Official Journal of the European Union

The role of preliminary reservoirs in the protection of the Maltański Reservoir

Archiv für Hydrobiologie–Beiheft Ergebnisse der Limnologie

Wpływ nowych preparatów chemicznych na ograniczanie wydzielania fosforu z osadów dennych

Biomanipulation in the Maltański Reservoir

International Review of Hydrobiology

The response of Lake Durowskie ecosystem to restoration measures

Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences

Searching for allelopathic effects of submerged macrophytes on phytoplankton – state of the art and open questions

Hydrobiologia

Original Research Article
The sustainable restoration of lakes—towards the challenges of the Water Framework Directive