ReviewA review on the human health impact of airborne particulate matter
Introduction
Air pollution is a process that introduces diverse pollutants into the atmosphere that cause harm to humans, other living organisms, and the natural environment (Kinney, 2008, Brauer et al., 2012, Kim et al., 2013). The health effects of air pollution, observed from both indoor and outdoor environments, have been of great concern due to the high exposure risk even at relatively low concentrations of air pollutants. More than two million deaths are estimated to occur globally each year as a direct consequence of air pollution through damage to the lungs and the respiratory system (Shah et al., 2013). Among these deaths, around 2.1 and 0.47 million are caused by fine particulate matter (PM) and ozone, respectively (Chuang et al., 2011, Shah et al., 2013).
The presence of PM poses more danger to human health than that of ground-level ozone and/or other common air pollutants (like carbon monoxide). Airborne PM consists of a heterogeneous mixture of solid and liquid particles suspended in air that varies continuously in size and chemical composition in space and time (WHO, 2013). It is found that the chemical constituents of PM are diverse enough to include nitrates; sulfates; elemental and organic carbon; organic compounds (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons); biological compounds (e.g., endotoxin, cell fragments); and metals (e.g., iron, copper, nickel, zinc, and vanadium) (WHO, 2013).
Numerous scientific studies have explained particle exposure as the source of various health problems including premature death in people with heart or lung disease, nonfatal heart attacks, irregular heartbeat, aggravated asthma, decreased lung function, and increased respiratory symptoms such as irritation of the airways, coughing, or difficulty breathing (Atkinson et al., 2010, Cadelis et al., 2014, Correia et al., 2013, Fang et al., 2013, Meister et al., 2012). This paper provides a comprehensive overview of PM pollution and its impact by synthesizing the newly added information on its source processes, size effect on exposure response, observed health effects, pollution scenario, and regulation guidelines. It also addresses the management skills of this important pollutant in some areas (such as China and Korea) suffering from the worst pollution.
Section snippets
Classification and source of PM
Although PM can be defined or classified in a number of ways, aerodynamic diameter is one of the main criteria to describe its transport ability in the atmosphere and/or inhaling ability through a respiratory organism (Esworthy, 2013). EPA has been regulating particles mainly in two size categories based on their predicted penetration capacity into the lung as either (i) coarse particulate matter (PM10) with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 μm or (ii) fine particulate matter (PM2.5) with an
Effect of particle size and particle components
It is acknowledged that the exposure effectiveness of PM is greatly influenced by local conditions such as weather, seasons, topography, sources of particles, concentrations being emitted, and microenvironments (Casati et al., 2007). Although the effect of PM exposure depends on physical characteristics (e.g., breathing mode, rate, and volume of a person), the size of particles has been directly linked to being the main cause of health problems (Brown et al., 2013). Generally speaking, the
Human diseases associated with PM pollution
Exposure to PM has been identified as the cause of numerous health effects including increased hospital admissions, emergency room visits, respiratory symptoms, exacerbation of chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, decreased lung function, and premature mortality (Guaita et al., 2011, Halonen et al., 2009, Perez et al., 2012, Samoli et al., 2008). In addition, scientists have suggested that exposure to high particle levels may also lead to diverse symptoms including low birth weight
Mortality of PM pollution
According to most of the currently available epidemiological studies, mortality has been used as the indicator of health effects with respect to PM pollution. Moreover, information on daily admissions to hospital is also used in time series studies. However, such application is limited by the lack of intercountry comparisons but used for health impact assessments to reflect differences in national or local practices in hospital admissions and in the use of other forms of medical care in the
Pollution scenario and regulation guidelines for PM
Urbanization, coupled with increased industrialization, emissions from vehicles as well as suspension from unpaved roads, and emissions from waste and biomass burning for household and commercial needs may lead to substantial increase of PM in ambient air. Table 3 listed the average annual exposure level (μg m− 3) of particular matter (PM10) in different countries around the world. In most of the cases, PM concentrations exceeded the latest air quality guidelines set by the WHO for mean annual
Conclusion
The health effects of PM10 and PM2.5 are well documented. Many lines of evidence point to the fact that exposure to particulate matter is linked to adverse respiratory and cardiovascular health effects. Epidemiological and experimental studies have now clearly demonstrated that not all particles are equally toxic but give different risks for health effects. There is growing evidence that the most harmful effects of particulate matter are related to the size of the particle. As particles
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by a grant from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) (Grant No. 2009-0093848).
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