Position PaperModelling with stakeholders☆
Introduction
Stakeholder engagement, collaboration, participation, shared learning and fact-finding have become buzz words in many management-oriented areas of science. Hardly any environmental assessment or modelling effort today can be presented without some kind of reference to stakeholders and their involvement in the process. In the 1970s the US Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) pioneered with efforts based on stakeholder participation in environmental decision making and assessment (Wagner and Ortolando, 1975, Wagner and Ortolando, 1976). Even earlier than that Forrester, when creating the system dynamics approach, sought to involve clients in the process of model construction. Forrester, 1961, Forrester, 1985, Forrester, 1994 emphasised the need to access the mental database of managers in order to be able to construct system dynamics models of strategic problems in business. In the 1970s this role of client involvement in the implementation of model results was more broadly recognised (Greenberger et al., 1976) as models started to enter the policy making arena. Modellers started working with individual clients and interest groups in all sort of ways. Not coincidentally it was also in the 1970s when the so-called “Sunshine Laws” were adopted by the US federal and state governments, requiring meetings, decisions and records of the regulatory authorities to be made available to the public. In some states public meetings were mandated to discuss a variety of decisions, one major example being timber sales in the Northwest. It was also at that time that the ACE called for the broad participation of stakeholders.
For decades prior, scientists had been carrying out their studies among themselves, modellers analysed the systems that were of interest to them, and software developers produced algorithms and programs that they believed would do the best job. Indeed, they were the experts; they knew better how the systems work, and tended not to question why somebody else should decide what was needed to solve important problems. Through the intervening years stakeholder involvement has become almost a “must”. This is clearly a positive development, but in far too many cases stakeholders have merely been paid lip service and their engagement has consequentially been quite nominal.
It is one thing to bring managers and clients into a joint process of problem solving, where the ultimate goal of optimising a firm’s performance, say, is a relatively simple one that can be shared by all the players. It is much harder to achieve success in natural resource management, however, when stakeholders may represent local, federal, private and public organisations, as well as individual citizens and interest groups, which have very different, oftentimes conflicting interests. Furthermore, in a company or an organisation the boundaries of the system are well known, while in natural resource management systems the definition of the spatial, social and ecological boundaries are all part of the problem. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that better decisions are implemented with less conflict and more success when they are driven by stakeholders, that is by those who will be bearing their consequences. The bottom-up approach, when the stakeholders play a role in the decision-making process, offers a lot of promise, especially in democratic societies, where unpopular decisions are hard to implement in a top-bottom scheme of events, when all the decisions come from the governmental institutions.
It does not follow though that public involvement does necessarily or automatically lead to legitimacy and support of policies (Korfmacher, 2001). On the one hand the efficiency of the participatory process depends on social relations between the stakeholders, their ability to communicate and exchange information and knowledge, and the skills and methods that can assist them in doing that. On the other hand there is a clear need for technical, analytical and modelling tools and software that can be used in this process (Mendoza and Prabhu, 2006). Over the last decade progress has been made both on the social and technical aspects, and this thematic issue aims at presenting some of these achievements. Different groups of researchers have advanced in parallel, developing and applying specific methodologies, which are based on the same principles but focus on different parts of the process. While we have seen several recent reviews of participatory methods in decision making (e.g. Reed, 2008), in this overview paper we focus on participatory modelling. We first look at the different types of stakeholder modelling that we have encountered, and compare participatory modelling to other frameworks that involve stakeholder participation. Based on that and on the experience of the projects reported in this issue, we draw some lessons and generalisations. We conclude with an outline of some future directions.
Section snippets
Definitions and typologies
There has been a proliferation of various clones of stakeholder engagement in modelling, or, rather, of the use of modelling in support of a decision-making process that involves stakeholders. In many cases the differences are quite subtle and it may seem that various agencies or groups come up with a new term to serve as a recognised trademark for their efforts. In essence they tend to be doing more or less the same things. Some authors (Lynam et al., 2007, Daniell, 2008, Renger et al., 2008)
Objectives and type of participation
There is usually a mix of two main objectives that drive the participatory modelling process:
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increase and share knowledge and understanding of a system and its dynamics under various conditions, as in collaborative learning (Lynam et al., 2010, Souchere et al., 2010, Campo et al., 2010);
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identify and clarify the impacts of solutions to a given problem, usually related to supporting decision making, policy, regulation or management (Lagabrielle et al., 2010, Simon and Etienne, 2010; Anselme,
Lessons learned
We consider two categories of lessons drawn from various experiences conducted over the last decade: the lessons on the interactions among actors involved in the modelling process (social lessons) and the methodological modelling lessons.
Conclusions. From participatory modelling to collaborative decision making and adaptive modelling
Conclusions can be drawn in three directions: social, instrumental, and methodological.
Acknowledgements
The paper has been offered for open review as an EMS Position Paper. This process invites the Editorial Board and other invited reviewers to submit their comments and additions to the paper. We are very grateful to Michel Etienne, John Norton and Mark Borsuk, who have provided very useful critique and suggestions for improving the paper. Our thanks are also due to Tony Jakeman who has reviewed an earlier version of the paper and gave valuable comments on various aspects of the paper. We
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Position papers aim to synthesise some key aspect of the knowledge platform for environmental modelling and software issues. The review process is twofold - a normal external review process followed by extensive review by EMS Board members. See the Editorial in Volume 21 (2006).