Acrylamide formation is prevented by divalent cations during the Maillard reaction
Introduction
Detection of high concentrations of acrylamide in common heated foodstuffs in April 2002 (Swedish NFA, 2002) caused considerable public concern, since acrylamide was found to be carcinogenic in rodents (Johnson et al., 1986) and is classified as a probable human carcinogen (IARC, 1993). These findings caused the European Community (EC, 2002), and the WHO (FAO/WHO, 2002) to initiate projects for the minimization of acrylamide content in commercial as well as in homemade foods.
A number of theoretical mechanisms have been proposed for the formation of acrylamide in heated food. Most probably, acrylamide in food results largely from the Maillard reaction between asparagine and a reactive carbonyl, proceeding through intermediates that include a Schiff’s base (Mottram et al., 2002, Stadler et al., 2002, Zyzak et al., 2003). Several factors, such as the initial concentration of reactants and their ratio, temperature and time of processing, pH and water activity, have been shown to influence the formation levels of acrylamide in heat-processed foods (Friedman, 2003). The influence of temperature on the formation of acrylamide has been repeatedly demonstrated (Becalski et al., 2003, Biedermann and Grob, 2003, Rydberg et al., 2003, Stadler et al., 2002, Tareke et al., 2002).
Recent studies have indicated that polyvalent cations reduce acrylamide formation in thermally processed snack foods and bakery products (Elder et al., 2005, Lindsay and Jang, 2005). In this study, model Maillard and real food systems were employed to investigate the potential formation and degradation of acrylamide during heating in the presence of mono- and divalent cations.
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Chemicals and consumables
Acrylamide (99+%) and 13C3-labelled acrylamide (99% isotopic purity) were obtained from Sigma (Diesenhofen, Germany) and Cambridge Isotope Laboratories (Andover, MA, USA), respectively. Fructose and asparagine were obtained from Sigma. Acetic acid, formic acid, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride and magnesium chloride were all reagent grade and obtained from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). The analytical column Zorbax SB-Aq (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) was supplied by Agilent Technologies
The effects of cations on acrylamide formation in asparagine–fructose reaction system
It has been shown that Maillard-driven generation of flavour and colour in heated foods can be linked to the formation of acrylamide. Free asparagine in combination with reducing sugars generates significant amounts of acrylamide when pyrolysed at temperatures greater than 120 °C (Mottram et al., 2002, Stadler et al., 2002).
We heated equimolar amounts of asparagine and fructose at 150 and 180 °C in sealed glass tubes. The formation of acrylamide followed typical kinetic patterns (Fig. 1). The
Acknowledgements
We thank Turkish Academy of Sciences (GEBIP Study Grant) and Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (Project TOVAG COST 927-2) for financial support, Agilent Technologies for supplying some consumables, Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory for LC-MS analyses.
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