ReviewLiterature review: Impact of climate change on pesticide use
Introduction
Climate change is defined as a change in the statistical properties of the climate system, when considered over long periods of time, regardless of cause (ENSAA, 2011, IPCC, 2001). There is concordance amongst scientists that climate change encompasses atmospheric carbon dioxide variations, altered worldwide temperatures and precipitation variation, all directly or indirectly influencing sea levels and salinity, alterations in arable land, crop yields, changes in soil quality, nitrogen deposition and plant diversity (Fontaine et al., 2009, Harvell et al., 2002, Jackson et al., 2011, Miraglia et al., 2009). The extensively differing impact on nature, human health and even the economy, implies that climate change is both spatially and temporally heterogeneous (EEA, 2012, Fontaine et al., 2009, Harvell et al., 2002).
Temperature, light and water are the key elements that control the growth and development of organisms (Harvell et al., 2002, Rosenzweig et al., 2001). Consequently, biodiversity responses that depend on these environmental parameters, can be expected (Lepetz, Massot, Schmeller, & Clobert, 2009). For example, altered precipitation patterns and cultivation practices can create a thriving environment for insect and pathogen attacks (Roos, Hopkins, Kvarnheden, & Dixelius, 2011), or corresponding advances in phenology (Fontaine et al., 2009). Moreover, the increasing climate variability (Wang, Zwiers, Swail, & Feng, 2009) can induce alterations in interspecific relationships between organisms, such as competition or predation (Lepetz et al., 2009), possibly resulting in a decrease in food supplies and an increase in microbial and toxic contaminants in food (Hall, D Souza, & Kirk, 2002).
For several decades, pesticides have been widely used to prevent, mitigate or destroy pests and improve commodities' yield and quality. Their mode of action provides a competitive advantage for agricultural crops, in comparison with weeds and protects the crops from the damaging influences of pests and diseases. Despite the potential toxicity for beneficial organisms and even human health, their use is a necessity to retain the current production yields and high quality life standards. Pesticide efficiency and use can be influenced in many ways and not in the least by environmental conditions. Given the general acceptance of major climate change effects, it is obvious that an effect on pesticide use can also be expected. The direction of this effect is, however, uncertain and has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Research for the effects of climate change, is generally not limited to pesticides and consequently, not very detailed, in a way that only limited influencing factors or effects are described. Climate change has a powerful effect on the environmental fate and behaviour of pesticides by altering fundamental mechanisms of partitioning between the environmental compartments, also affecting pesticide use (Noyes et al., 2009). A lower pesticide residue on crops, due to climate change, results in an increased vulnerability to pests and diseases, meaning that in the future, farmers may have to spray more often during the growing season. A higher pest or disease pressure will also enhance application frequencies and volumes. As a consequence, the detected residue concentrations might double for some products, while others will disappear faster and hence, do not increase the residues on crops. In this review, the current knowledge of possible climate change effects on pesticide use was combined and a detailed effect on pesticide use was distilled. The importance of this effect, lies in the implications of an adapted pesticide use for consumer exposure to pesticide residues at the end of the food supply chain.
In contrast to natural contaminants, produced by micro-organisms or fungi, pesticide residues in food, can be controlled by human actions. Highly toxic crop protection chemicals can, for instance, be replaced by less dangerous or more human and environmental friendly alternatives. In this respect, the food safety issues related to an increased exposure to pesticide residues, as a consequence of climate change, might not occur.
Section snippets
Influencing factors for pesticide use
Given the multivariate nature of climate change and nonlinear thresholds in natural processes, it is difficult to consider all the links between climate change and pesticide use (Harvell et al., 2002). Six aspects that directly impact a farmer's use of pesticides, were selected (Fig. 1). Amongst those six aspects, legislation, the economic situation and technological progress are not directly influenced by climate, while pesticide efficiency, crop characteristics and pest occurrence and
Conclusion
Several elements that can influence pesticide use, have been presented. In the first instance, pesticide producing companies will strive to supply optimal products. (New) pesticide active ingredients will have to be formulated in rain-fast products for agricultural use. For farmers, the season and timing of the pesticide application, seasonal precipitation and temperature in relation to environmental factors, will strongly influence management decisions (Nolan et al., 2008, Reilly et al., 2003).
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