Professional judgment in non-industrial private forestry: Forester attitudes and social norms influencing biodiversity conservation
Introduction
Professional foresters serving non-industrial private forest owners, like the entire forest sector, are facing a growing demand to integrate green principles into commercial forestry. Biodiversity conservation in particular poses a globally and locally important integration challenge for commercial forestry (Chapin et al., 2000, Lindenmayer et al., 2006, Auvinen et al., 2007). A suite of operationalisations for integrating biodiversity conservation and forest management have been defined under the rubrics of multiple use, integrated resource management and sustainable forest management. More recently multifunctional management, ecosystem management and adaptive management have been the labels for integration. Despite these operationalisations, the challenge of integration remains ambiguous and it is unclear how this ambiguity is dealt with on the ground. By examining factors that influence professional foresters' habitat delineation in non-industrial private forests, this article analyses how biodiversity conservation is integrated into forest management. The analyses explain voluntary exceeding of minimum legal delineation requirements, drawing on the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1988).
The ambiguity of the challenge places the responsibility of integration of forests' multiple functions on professionals in the sector (Eckerberg, 1986, Farrell et al., 2000, Kennedy et al., 2001, Pregernig, 2002). Ultimately, interpretation of requirements is with those foresters who make operational decisions in the field. This individual level interpretation of goals and professional autonomy has long been recognised as a characteristic of complex hierarchical organisations where the professionals operate between broad policy and a dispersed clientele (Lipsky, 1980, Simon, 1997). This has been found to be the case in forestry organisations in particular (Kaufman, 1960, Twight and Lyden, 1988). However, the significance of foresters' professional judgment in moulding the practice of sustainable forest management, particularly in current-day non-industrial private forests, has been underrated.
Dominantly, new challenges to forestry, including biodiversity conservation, have been considered in analyses of beliefs and behaviour of land owners (Uliczka et al., 2004, Fischer and Bliss, 2006, Serbruyns and Luyssaert, 2006, Boon and Meilby, 2007, Raymond and Olive, 2008). However, conceptions and attitudes of land owners have been found to differ from those of forestry professionals (Selby et al., 2007, Kindstrand et al., 2008). As land owners are dependent on professional advice when making decisions (Hujala et al., 2007), it is the forestry professionals serving them, who merit attention.
The scarce studies of the professional forestry administration between policy and land owners point to important characteristics that shape policy implementation, and also adaptation to new challenges. Already close to half a century ago, Kaufman (1960) has shown forestry administration to implement policy in a uniform fashion despite locally specific contexts and professional autonomy of foresters. Although this is a general impression of the sector (Twight and Lyden, 1988, Koontz and Bondine, 2008, Kindstrand et al., 2008), Pregernig (2001) has identified a range of values among forestry professionals, which can lead to differing policy interpretations and thus, influence the degree to which foresters integrate biodiversity conservation to commercial forestry.
Forest policy is assumed to trickle down the hierarchy and filter through the “funnel” of administration to the planning foresters (Kaufman, 1960, Eckerberg, 1986, Cubbage et al., 1993). Forest planning, in turn, is presumed to be an expert function where decisions would be based on information and preferences. These assumptions are evident in the vast literature on decision optimising and support which also extends to integrated conservation and management (Kangas and Kangas, 2005, Mendoza and Martins, 2006). However, real-world decisions are rarely based simply on complete information and logical weighing of alternatives (Simon, 1997) but are significantly backed up by “rules of thumb” that rely on experience and practice as well as “logic of appropriateness” defined by the social context (March, 1994). In other words, practical decisions are often made with limited attention and resources, based on salient beliefs and social norms.
Recent developments in forest biodiversity conservation policy are twofold. While there is a tendency to elaborate regulation, an increasing interest and reliance on voluntary action can be identified both in research and in practice (Wilson, 2001, Cashore and Vertinsky, 2000, Anton et al., 2004, Kagan et al., 2003). These two approaches are often contrasted, increasingly with the conclusion that voluntary arrangements are gaining dominance, as a reflection of a more general governance and policy shift (Nie, 2008). Voluntary conservation has been found to be effective when there is a background threat of regulation (Langpap and Wu, 2004, May and Winter, 1999; see also: Hiedanpää, 2005, Gootee et al., 2006, Paloniemi and Tikka, 2008). In voluntary settings, meeting legally or otherwise defined standards is based on affirmative motivations (May, 2004), and exceeding them is morally and socially rewarding (Vatn, 2005). Further, this type of “over-compliance” is expected to pay off through improved reputation and accountability (Porter and van der Linde, 1995, Gunningham et al., 2004). A forest sector example of voluntariness is the development of various certification schemes that are embraced by a great majority of actors in forestry and forest industry (Cashore et al., 2005, Gulbrandsen, 2005).
Both regulatory and voluntary integration of conservation into commercial forest management materialise in management standards and principles. One illustrative management principle is that of habitat conservation in connection with commercial forestry operations (Gustafsson, 2000). In Finland, habitat conservation in managed forests has been addressed in recent forest regulation, which sets a minimum requirement by stating that special characteristics of particular habitats must be conserved (Forest Act, 1996). However, delineation of the entire habitat completely outside the operation is not a legal requirement but the site can be managed in a way that does not destroy the special characteristics, e.g. individual trees can be removed. By delineating Forest Act habitats completely outside the operation the planner exceeds the minimum legal requirement. Implementation of the Forest Act has been backed up by inventories of the habitats, data bases and training for forestry professionals (Yrjönen, 2004). Conservation of other valuable habitats is a recommended voluntary practice that applies to all actors managing non-industrial private forests (Tapio, 2001). It is, therefore, another way to over-comply with the legally defined minimum. The decision to delineate to meet the legal minimum requirements of the Forest Act or, to exceed them, is made by the forester who plans the forestry operation. This decision requires professional judgment by the forester, which derives from his knowledge, values and the social expectations he confronts.
The purpose of this article is to study the factors that shape the habitat conservation practice of professional foresters who plan almost all commercial forestry operations in non-industrial private forests.1 Our focus is on the foresters' beliefs about biodiversity conservation and the social normative context where these professionals operate. Additionally, we pay attention to the perception of autonomy by the foresters when they make conservation decisions. Before presenting our analysis, we describe the theory of planned behaviour and its uses in natural resource and environmental contexts. After methods and results, we discuss the implications of our findings for forest policy.
Section snippets
Theory of planned behaviour and application to habitat conservation
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1988, Ajzen, 1991) takes the decision-maker's intention to behave in a particular fashion as the best available estimate for the behaviour or decision. Intentions are predicted by three determinants: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Fig. 1). Attitudes express a positive or negative disposition towards the behaviour. More precisely, attitudes consist of decision-makers' beliefs that the behaviour will lead to a particular
Sample frame and survey procedure
We conducted a survey with Finnish foresters making operational management plans in non-industrial private forests. The random sample of foresters stratified by organisations was taken out of a sample frame of 2160 which included the entire identified population of planners responsible for long-term planning and foresters planning operations in Regional Forestry Centres, Local Forest Management Associations, four companies and registered forest service entrepreneurs. The sample taken from each
Intentions
A high proportion of the respondents intended to delineate habitats. 74% intended to delineate Forest Act habitats completely aside, and 17 did not, while 71% of respondents intended to delineate other valuable habitats and 15 did not. The rest were neutral. The distribution of these two intentions differed statistically (χ2 = 557.93, df = 36, p = 0.000). Correlation between the two intentions was 0.677 (p = 0.000).
Attitudes and behavioural beliefs
The respondents' general attitude towards delineation was mostly positive (72% Forest
Discussion
Our analysis of forester judgment in habitat delineation provides essential information about the attitudes and norms of practitioners integrating conservation to commercial non-industrial private forestry, and contributes to the understanding of policy implementation as well as governance of multiple functions of forests more generally. By analysing two voluntary practices that exceed legal minimum requirements of habitat conservation, and the various personal and social factors influencing
Conclusions
We have studied integrated biodiversity conservation, more precisely, professional foresters' habitat delineation practice in non-industrial private forests, and the behavioural and normative beliefs that shape this practice. This group of actors has a decisive role in interpreting policy into practice and thus merits the attention of researchers studying natural resource management and biodiversity conservation, as well as of decision-makers who design policies to guide these activities.
Our
Acknowledgements
We want to thank Icek Ajzen for ideas and comments at an early phase of this research, Steven Wolf for support in research on organisational conditions and networks, and Jari Kuuluvainen for helpful comments on several drafts of this paper. Also Mikael Hildén, Hannu Rita and Eija Pouta deserve thanks for comments. The comments of Tove Enggrob Boon and an anonymous reviewer improved the paper considerably. The research has been financially supported by the Maj and Tor Nessling Foundation and the
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