The early Precambrian odyssey of the North China Craton: A synoptic overview
Graphical Abstract
Research Highlights
► Major crustal growth in the North China Craton at 2.9-2.7 Ga. ► Neoarchean greenstone belts surrounding micro-blocks represent vestiges of arc -continent collision. ► Paleoproterozoic rifting followed by subduction-accretion-collision and plume-triggered extension analogous to modern-style plate tectonics.
Introduction
Many of the Archean terranes over the globe with ages ranging up to 3.8–4.0 Ga are dominantly composed of tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite (TTG) gneisses with or without minor volumes of meta-supracrustal rocks and meta-gabbros (e.g., Nutman et al., 1993, Nutman et al., 2000). The major event of formation of TTGs during 2.9–2.7 Ga contributed to the generation of large volumes of juvenile crust, and the TTG rocks were probably derived by the partial melting of mafic (oceanic?) protoliths accompanied by varying degrees of interaction with mantle peridotite (e.g., Martin et al., 2005, Smithies et al., 2007). On the other hand, granitic gneisses, which form the common constituents of continental crust, were mostly derived from intermediate-felsic rocks as well as sedimentary protoliths by partial melting. Condie et al., 2001, Condie, 2001, Condie, 2004 suggested a Neoarchean plume model to interpret the formation of TTGs during 2.9–2.7 Ga, and correlated them to a large igneous province with associated basalt–komatiite suites. The amalgamation of continental fragments at ca. 2.5 Ga into a supercraton (Arctica or Kenorland) has also been proposed (e.g., Rogers and Santosh, 2003, Rogers and Santosh, 2004). However, the mechanism of aggregation of the Early Precambrian continental blocks to form a supercraton is equivocal, and the various models proposed take into consideration rifting, density-inversion, back arc basin formation, arc–arc accretion, subduction of oceanic lithosphere, and arc–continent or continent–continent collision (Jordan, 1978, Arndt, 1983, Nisbet, 1987, Hoffman, 1988, Mitchell, 1991, Kröner and Layer, 1992, Windley, 1973, Windley, 1993, Windley, 1995, Goodwin, 1996, Kusky, 1990, Condie, 2000, Kusky et al., 2004a, Kusky et al., 2004b, Eriksson and Catuneanu, 2004, Santosh et al., 2010a). The driving mechanism of the above processes is also debated with varying models of intra-continent tectonics, plume tectonics and plate tectonics.
Several recent studies have addressed the debate on the style of plate tectonics on our globe during the Archean and its correlations with Phanerozoic examples (e.g., Ernst, 2009, Komiya and Maruyama, 2007, Korsch et al., 2011, Santosh et al., 2010a). Condie and Kröner (2008) and Kusky (2011), among others, have suggested some of the critical indicators for the recognition of plate tectonics in early Earth development. Two of the diagnostic features often referred to are suture zones with ophiolite sheets, and high-pressure metamorphic orogens developed through subduction–collision processes in old cratons. The Isua belt in West Greenland (see Polat et al., in press for recent review) and Zunhua ultramafic bodies within the supracrustal belt in the North China Craton (Kusky et al., 2001, Kusky et al., 2004a) are considered as some of the typical examples of Archean ophiolite, although the rock associations in these two belts are distinct in terms of their petrological and geochemical characters as compared to those in the Phanerozoic ophiolite suites (e.g. Dilek et al., 2007). The Archean cratons of our planet are generally constructed with two major rock components: (1) gneiss-dominated domains, mostly metamorphosed (high-grade metamorphic region); and (2) well-preserved, low-grade or un-metamorphosed, volcanic rock-dominated greenstone belts (Windley, 1995). The high-grade regions show metamorphism grading up to upper amphibolite or granulite facies under high temperature and medium pressure, whereas the rocks in the greenstone belts are unmetamorphosed or weakly metamorphosed under greenschist facies, and occur as linear fold belts surrounding the high-grade domains. These features are contrary to those of the metamorphic belts developed within convergent margins in Phanerozoic plates (e.g., Isozaki et al., 2010). Also, recent studies have brought out several examples for garnet-bearing high pressure mafic granulites and Mg–Al metapelites metamorphosed under 12–15 kb pressure and at high- to ultrahigh (> 900 °C) temperatures in continent–continent collisional sutures from various parts of the world including southern India and North China Craton, and related these to global tectonic events during different periods in Earth history such as Late Archean, Paleoproterozoic and Late Neoproterozoic (Zhai et al., 1992, Zhai et al., 1995, Guo et al., 1993, Li et al., 1998, Zhao et al., 1999, Zhao et al., 2000; Kusky et al., 2001, Kusky et al., 2007a; Santosh and Kusky, 2010, Santosh et al., 2007a, Santosh et al., 2007b, Santosh et al., 2009a, Santosh et al., 2009b, Santosh et al., 2009c, Santosh et al., 2010b, Santosh, 2010a, Saitoh et al., 2011). Zhai, 2009, Zhai et al., 2010 suggested that the high pressure (HP) and high- or ultrahigh-temperature (HT-UHT) granulites in the North China Craton correspond to a much higher geothermal gradient of 16–28 °C/km and a much slower exhumation rate of ca. 0.33–0.5 mm/yr as compared to the colder geotherms and faster uplift rates in Phanerozoic orogenic belts. Furthermore, the HP and HT-UHT granulites typically occur together and often show a common tectonic affinity (e.g., Santosh and Kusky, 2010) with no systematic linear distribution patterns, as against their counterparts in Phanerozoic orogens (e.g., Isozaki et al., 2010, Brown, 2010).
The North China Craton (NCC), covering an area of over 300,000 km2, has been in focus in relation to its position within the Paleoproterozoic supercontinent Columbia (e.g., Zhao et al., 2003, Rogers and Santosh, 2009, Kusky and Santosh, 2009, Santosh et al., 2006, Santosh et al., 2007a, Santosh et al., 2007b, Santosh, 2010a, Santosh et al., 2010c) and several studies have addressed the metamorphic, magmatic, structural and geochronological aspects associated with the Paleoproterozoic tectonic events (discussed in later sections of this manuscript). However, it is becoming increasingly clear from recent studies that the crustal evolution history of the NCC is far more complex, and that the oldest crust in this craton might have formed as early as 3.8–4.0 Ga (Zhai et al., 2010, and references therein). Thus, the NCC preserves important imprints of the early history of the Earth, including crust formation, stabilization and reworking.
This paper focuses on the early Precambrian tectonic evolution of the NCC, keystones of which are the formation of voluminous Archean TTG gneisses building the crust, late Neoarchean amalgamation of micro-blocks, subduction–collision processes in the Paleoproterozoic generating HP and HT-UHT granulites, and rift-related magmatic activity, probably associated with a mantle plume event. The information synthesized in this work provides new insights into the Early Precambrian odyssey of the NCC.
Section snippets
Oldest crustal rock
According to some recent studies (e.g., Wilde et al., 2001, Iizuka et al., 2006, Nemchin et al., 2006, Harrison, 2009), the oldest rocks in the Earth are tonalitic gneisses, and the oldest zircons are detrital zircons in sedimentary rocks which were sourced from TTG protoliths. This would mean that continental crust formed earlier than oceanic crust, although it is difficult to derive continental crust by direct partial melting of mantle. The magma ocean model proposes that continental nuclei
Late Neoarchean amalgamation of micro blocks and cratonization
Neoarchean is an important period for the formation and stabilization of the NCC and the rocks formed during this period are critical to the understanding of the growth and evolution of the continental crust in this craton.
Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts and reworking of the craton
Although the NCC behaved as a stable continent block during the 2500–2350 Ma period, the craton witnessed major Paleoproterozoic tectonic events, which were traditionally named in Chinese literature as the Lüliang Movement, Hutuo Movement or Zhongtiao Movement (Zhao et al., 1993, Bai et al., 1996, Zhai, 2004). In a recent study, Zhai and Peng (2007) proposed that the so-called Lüliang Movement could be divided into two ‘event groups’ representing an orogenic cycle from rifting to
Conclusions
The synthesis of geological, geochronological and tectonic information pertaining to the Precambrian evolution and stabilization of the North China Craton presented in this study leads to the following salient conclusions.
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Quartz dioritic gneiss with an age of ca. 3.8 Ga is by far the oldest rock recorded from the NCC. Voluminous TTG gneisses were generated at ca. 2.7–2.8 Ga, associated with komatiitic and basalt–dacite bimodal volcanic eruption, and are preserved in various micro-blocks in the
Acknowledgements
We thank the two referees of Gondwana Research who offered helpful and insightful comments. Some of the field photographs were provided by Y.S. Wan and F. Liu, for which we are thankful to them. We express our gratitude to Jinhui Guo, Guochun Zhao, Tim Kusky, Peng Peng, Jianghai Li, Brian Windley, Alfred Kröner and Simon Wilde and post-doctoral students for their cooperation, help and discussion. This study represents the research results of a project (Grant Nos. 90714003 and 41030316)
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