Feasibility of storing CO2 in the Utsira formation as part of a long term Dutch CCS strategy: An evaluation based on a GIS/MARKAL toolbox
Introduction
CO2 capture and storage (CCS) is increasingly considered a crucial technology for mitigating climate change (IPCC, 2007). An important precondition for the implementation of CCS, however, will be the realisation of a CO2 transport and storage infrastructure. In North West Europe part of this infrastructure may be constructed in the North Sea because of the large CO2 storage potentials that have been identified there. For example, in the Norwegian part of the North Sea, storage capacity has been estimated to be 148 GtCO2 in aquifers, 4.4 GtCO2 in gas fields, and 4.8 GtCO2 in oil fields (BERR, 2007, Bøe et al., 2002). In the part of the North Sea that belongs to the United Kingdom (UK), the storage potential has been estimated to be 14.5 GtCO2 in aquifers, 6.0 GtCO2 in gas fields, and 4.2 GtCO2 in oil fields (BERR, 2007).
The geological reservoirs under the North Sea with very large CO2 storage potentials (e.g. large reservoirs in the Bunter Sandstone formation in the UK part of the North Sea, or the Utsira formation in the Norwegian part of the North Sea) may be indispensable when large amounts of CO2 need to be stored (Damen et al., 2009). A North Sea pipeline network could connect CO2 sources in countries around the North Sea to such a geological storage reservoir. So far most studies of trans-boundary transport crossing the North Sea have concentrated on the use of CO2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). For example, Markussen et al. (2002) looked at the use of large volumes of CO2 from the UK, Denmark, and Norway for EOR on the North Sea continental shelf. According to them it is cost-effective to sequester around 680 MtCO2 in the North Sea while at the same time producing an additional amount of two billion barrels of oil. More recently, a study in the UK (BERR, 2007), which examined a CO2 infrastructure for storing CO2 from UK and Norwegian sources in the North Sea, found that only for the purpose of EOR, it would be worthwhile to transport CO2 from the UK to Norway.1 Also in the Netherlands, a study of the Rotterdam Climate Initiative to reduce CO2 emissions in the Rotterdam region, considered CO2 transport to Norway only for EOR purposes (Hoog, 2008). Furthermore, the authors of the IEA GHG study, which calculated cost curves of CO2 transport and storage for Europe (IEA GHG, 2005a), did not include the aquifers with large CO2 storage potentials such as the Utsira formation in their analysis. However, recent broader analyses (Broek et al., 2008, Broek et al., 2009, Damen et al., 2009) showed that CO2 storage in very large geological storage reservoirs, can make CO2 trans-boundary transport for the mere purpose of CO2 storage an interesting option as well. Yet, a decision to invest in a major trunkline across the North Sea to such a reservoir, requires additional insights into its feasibility with respect to costs and organisation.
In this paper, we, therefore, aim to assess the cost-effectiveness of CCS and CO2 storage in a very large formation under the North Sea in competition with CCS and CO2 storage in smaller nearby formations or in competition with other CO2 mitigation options. We also try to identify the boundary conditions that make investments in a major CO2 pipeline across the North Sea worthwhile, and to assess suitable routings for this pipeline. Finally, we will make a first inventory of organisational issues related to its construction.
We will investigate these issues by investigating the specific case of a CO2 trunkline from the Netherlands to the Utsira formation. This formation has already been used for CO2 injection from 1996 in the Sleipner project, the first commercial project to store CO2 in a saline aquifer (Gale et al., 2001, Hermanrud et al., 2009, Torp and Gale, 2004). This formation consisting of sand and sandstone, is located east of Norway from ca 58°N to 62°N and covers an area of up to 470 km in North-South direction and up to 100 km in East-West direction, the thickness is probably not more than 250 m, and is located at a depth of 500–1500 m below the sea floor (Bøe et al., 2002) and a water depth of 80–100 m (Torp and Brown, 2004). The formation is of special interest due to its enormous theoretical CO2 storage potential (42 GtCO2) and its high permeability (Bøe et al., 2002). The permeability is in the order of 3500 mD, and the porosity ranges from 27% to 42% (Torp and Gale, 2004). By using a general storage efficiency of 6% for open aquifers, the pore volume that can be used for CO2 storage is estimated to be 55 km3 (Bøe et al., 2002). Furthermore, it is overlain by the Nordland shale (Bøe et al., 2002) consisting of fine-grained clays or silty clays, through which it is unlikely that CO2 will leak (Kemp et al., 2002).
The structure of this paper is as follows. Details about the adopted methodology and input data can be found in Section 2. Results are presented and discussed in Sections 3 Results, 4 Discussion of the outcomes. In Section 5 we discuss a few organisational issues, and finally in Section 6 conclusions are drawn with respect to the feasibility of a CO2 trunkline from the Netherlands to the Utsira formation. It should be noted that the scope of the study is limited to sources that emit more than 100 ktCO2 in the industrial, electricity and cogeneration sector in which CO2 capture can be applied. In this paper, a discount rate of 7% is used, and all costs are in €2007.
Section snippets
Overview
To evaluate the techno-economic feasibility of a CO2 trunkline from the Netherlands to the Utsira formation, temporal and spatial dimensions need to be taken into account explicitly. Therefore we use a toolbox integrating ArcGIS, a geographical information system (GIS) with elaborated spatial and routing functions, and the MARKAL (an acronym for MARKet ALlocation) tool, which can generate energy bottom-up models to calculate energy technology configurations over time (Loulou et al., 2004). More
Base case
In this section the results of the MARKAL-NL-UU runs are described for the base case. In order to meet the growing electricity demand and to offset the lower availability of wind and solar capacity, the power generation capacity more than doubles over the analysis period. Due to the assumed CO2 permit price (43 €/tCO2 in 2020 and 60 €/tCO2 from 2030 onwards) and the renewable energy target, CO2 emissions are reduced by 29% and 67% compared to the 1990 level in the electricity generation sector
Discussion of the outcomes
In this paper the development of a Dutch CO2 infrastructure that would include an offshore trunkline to the Utsira formation was investigated taking into account policy to mitigate CO2 emissions. The applied model MARKAL-NL-UU in combination with ArcGIS indicates that CO2 capture and storage in the Netherlands may increase steeply around 2020. Projections of total volume captured are in the range of 26–39 MtCO2/yr. These figures are in line with regional plans in the Netherlands. In the
Discussion of some organisational issues
From a Dutch perspective, a number of options are conceivable for setting up a CO2 transport network. These options can include (or are a combination of) a network connecting CO2 sources to onshore storage sites, to Dutch near-offshore hydrocarbon fields, or to a huge reservoir underneath the North Sea (in this study the Utsira formation). Some organisational implications of the different options are pointed out:
Conclusions
In this research we combined the energy bottom-up model MARKAL and the geographic information system, ArcGIS, to assess the feasibility of using the Utsira formation as part of a long-term Dutch strategy to develop a CO2 infrastructure. We strived to determine suitable technical configurations for such a pipeline, to assess the boundary conditions making its investment worthwhile, and to make a first inventory of the organisational implications around the construction of this pipeline.
Acknowledgements
This research work was supported by the CATO programme and ECN (project ECN-X—09-017). The CATO programme is the Dutch national research programme on CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS), and is financially supported by the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs and the consortium partners (for more information, see www.CO2-cato.nl). The authors would like to thank Paul Lako, Raouf Saidi, and Ad Seebregts (ECN Policy Studies), Tore Torp (StatoilHydro), Luuk Buit (Gasunie), Leslie Kramers, Ton Wildenborg,
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