Towards a framework for life cycle thinking in the assessment of nanotechnology
Introduction
The unique properties of nanomaterials and structures and also production technologies on the nanometer scale are associated with presumably revolutionary contributions to sustainable development in terms of resource efficiency or health care. However, not all revolutionary changes are sustainable per se and a cautious consideration of benefits addressing not only economic prospects, but also social implications and environmental impacts are essential. Amongst other concerns potential impact mechanisms of molecular and atomic nanoparticles and structures are so far not well understood and difficult to investigate due to the complexities of these materials and compounds. Moreover, certain technologies and materials are shaping products and services already, therefore, life cycle thinking is becoming more and more important.
The economic relevance of nanotechnology as enabling technology relies on the opportunity to influence the properties of materials in a way that smaller but more capable and more “intelligent” system components with improved or new functionalities can be produced. Therefore, the competitiveness of companies and thus, of economies in the future may depend crucially on the ability to make use of nanotechnology. In various market studies a tremendous increase in sales volumes of nano markets is reported ranging between US$ 220 [1] and US$ 1000 billion [2] by 2010. Most important nano markets in 2001 were, according to Pridöhl [1], ultra thin layers with a share of 44%, ultra precise surface structuring (24%), and nanoparticles and nanocomposites (23%). As the importance of ultra thin layers and of ultra precise surface structuring will presumably fall to 37% and 22%, respectively, in 2010, the one of nanoparticles and nanocomposites will increase to 28%.
Corresponding to the expected development of nano markets the volume of research and development (R&D) expenditures increased accordingly. The nano R&D investments under the Framework programmes (FP) of the EU increased from € 120 million in the fourth FP (1994–1998) to € 1300 million in the sixth FP (2002–2006). A similar development could be seen in the USA [3].
According to a study of the EU Commission, public and private R&D expenditures world wide amount to about € 8 billion in 2004. Of these, about € 3 billion were disbursed in the USA, € 2.3 billion in Japan, and € 1.9 billion in the EU, summing up to about 87% of world wide R&D expenditures on nanotechnology [4].
The obvious benefits and potentials leading to such optimistic market behaviour and strategy setting in research and development are currently neither substantiated by an assessment of ecological and human health risks nor by a holistic assessment of all aspects along the life cycle of nano based products and services. Little work has been done so far to compare, e.g. the efforts of material production and recycling with the benefits in the use phase beyond economic considerations. The assessment of risks and benefits in a life cycle perspective is necessary to detect possible short- and long-term adverse effects and to support decision making [5], [6].
As an objective of this paper, the authors examine the implications of life cycle thinking on nanotechnology and related market products. These implications are discussed from product, material and environmental perspectives and are illustrated by two case studies. The studies apply life cycle thinking in the nanotechnology domain and contribute to developing a common denominator framework for a consistent life cycle assessment in this field.
Section snippets
Adjusting life cycle thinking to nano scales
In order to establish a framework to assess obvious benefits and also risks from the application of nanotechnology in products and services in a life cycle perspective, it is necessary to specify as a starting point, both the diversity of products and the assessments which have already been made.
Considerations for framing LCA for nanotechnology
Considering frameworks for life cycle thinking in well established technology areas like transportation and energy production that have been modelled in LCA for decades, a certain consensus exists on best or at least good practice. Common ground in these areas has been defined by experts, who related different approaches and established a set of rules to consider in dealing with these services within LCA. However, such a straightforward approach in the area of nanotechnology fails as the
Case studies
Two case studies were done, one at the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH together with Balzers Unaxis in 2004 and one at Empa in 2006. Both were related to operative system analysis tasks and are used in the following to illustrate and substantiate the findings and observations in the previous section.
Conclusion
Life cycle thinking in the context of nanotechnology is currently in its very infancy. Potential advantages and improvements of nanotechnology are currently promoted disregarding the potential environmental impacts along the entire life cycle which should be assessed and diminished in total and not only for specific aspects in product use and consumption. In application cases where nanoparticles are released intentionally or accidentally the lack of reliable knowledge about potential impacts
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