The role of attitudes in technology acceptance management: Reflections on the case of hydrogen fuel cells in Europe

Highlights

• Target-group specific communication based on psycho-social variables is needed.

• Focus on effects of attitudes on consumers' perception of communication campaigns.

• Empirical study derives implications for communication on hydrogen fuel cells (HFC).

• For HFC: no biasing effect of attitudes because of low knowledge levels.

• information campaigns are, thus, a valuable tool to support diffusion of HFC.

Abstract

This manuscript considers the implications of prior attitudes for public-facing communication campaigns relating to hydrogen technologies in Europe. Findings from a survey of publics in seven EU countries indicate low attitude strength and low stability of attitudes towards hydrogen fuel cells for stationary and mobile applications, as well as country differences. While prior attitudes are known to be influential in technology acceptance, they appear to be less so at the early stage of technology diffusion, when public knowledge and awareness are relatively low. This in turn implies that while psychological theories are proving useful in consumer-citizen aspects of socio-technical transitions research in particular, their context-specific application and further empirical testing are required. The findings imply that information campaigns would be a valuable tool at this early stage of hydrogen technologies, being likely to increase awareness for those with low or no knowledge and to positively influence attitudes towards the technology. Assuming higher diffusion of the technologies in future, however, communication strategies would need to be adapted: stronger commitment towards particular attitudes may lead to ‘biased’ information processing and evaluation. Regular monitoring on a country-specific level in this regard is thus recommended, reflecting country differences in the degree of diffusion of hydrogen technologies.

Introduction

This study analyses public opinion of hydrogen fuel cell technologies conducted as part of a seven country study in Europe.¹ It thus contributes to research on the demand-side of new technological developments in low carbon energy. The importance of citizen and consumer acceptance for the diffusion of new technologies is undisputed (Zapata and Nieuwenhuis, 2010), but literature on sustainable consumption and production to date still often focuses on improvements in production (e.g. Lukman et al., 2016 provide an overview on articles included in a recent special issue on sustainable consumption and production published in Journal of Cleaner Production that illustrate this focus). Regarding consumer acceptance of technologies, previous studies highlight the role of public and consumer attitudes towards (sustainable) technologies in this regard (Khorasanizedh et al., 2016) as well as in relation to sustainability practices in general (e.g. Forbes et al., 2009, Ajzen, 1991). In fact, studies show that it is often negative attitudes towards renewable energies that hinder the diffusion of new, sustainable technologies (Maroušek, 2013).

This study examines in particular the role of attitudes in consumer and citizen reactions to information provision on new technologies, namely hydrogen fuel cells. We apply an interdisciplinary perspective, combining approaches from psychology, innovation and transition studies (see Zuo et al., 2017 re the role of multi-disciplinary approaches for research on cleaner production; and see Upham and Bögel, 2017 on the use of psychology in transition research). The focus of the study is particularly on the role of prior attitudes vis a vis levels of knowledge and awareness, together with general implications for associated communication and messaging. Hydrogen fuel cells are chosen as a case study, as they have been considered as one of the most “important advances in cleaner production of the automotive sector” (Zapata and Nieuwenhuis, 2010). For present purposes we leave aside issues of broader societal debate of sociotechnical futures, while acknowledging that this is part of the wider context (Upham et al., 2015a).

Among the alternative technologies for generating low-carbon heat and electricity and to replace fossil-fuel based powertrains, residential fuel cell micro-CHP and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) are receiving support towards commercialization. Home fuel cells (HFC) offer some important benefits over other low-carbon heating technologies, and cost reductions and financing mechanisms for the purchase or installation are bringing the technology close to commercialisation in several countries (Dodds and Ekins, 2014, Ammermann et al., 2015). Although the technology will likely remain comparatively expensive, it is assumed that HFCs have mass-market potential and will have a significant impact on reducing emissions and primary energy consumption where they are deployed (Ammermann et al., 2015). Likewise, the deployment of FCEVs, although still facing several challenges, is advancing worldwide; fuelling infrastructures are being deployed in several countries and auto manufacturer actions seem to confirm their commitment to keeping fuel cell technology as an option (Eberle et al., 2012, Air Resources Board, 2015). Thus, both FCEVs and HFCs micro-CHP are receiving support towards commercialization (Dodds and Ekins, 2014) and are considered significant options for low-carbon heat, electricity, and mobility –at least where the hydrogen is produced from renewable energy.

Nevertheless, the future adoption of residential fuel cells and fuel cell vehicles applications is uncertain. Both applications may benefit from a public willingness to take up more efficient heating and transport systems, but there are also many reasons why publics as consumers may prefer other alternatives or even incumbent, fossil fuel or combustion-based technologies that might be perceived as safer, cheaper, more effective and easier to control (Dodds and Ekins, 2014). Public and consumer acceptance will, therefore, likely play a role in the successful development of hydrogen and fuel cell applications, both in the residential and the transportation sectors (Ricci et al., 2008, Truett and Schmoyer, 2008, Yetano Roche et al., 2010; Oltra et al., 2017). As markets for hydrogen and fuel cell technologies develop, citizens may react in different ways to energy policies and local infrastructures deployed in their countries, regions and cities, and end-users will decide whether fuel cells fit their particular circumstances. Similar to other energy technologies, hydrogen fuel cells will likely face different levels of social and public acceptance in different countries and strategies for acceptance management will have to be adapted to these country-specific differences to support the diffusion of this new technology.

One of the most influential, conceptual models of new technology diffusion (Rogers, 1971), differentiates five different stages: (1) knowledge, when citizens and consumers get to know about the innovation and gain a first understanding of how it functions; (2) persuasion relates to the formation of a favorable or unfavorable attitude towards the innovation; (3) decision addresses the adoption or rejection of the innovation; (4) implementation refers to the actual use of the innovation; and (5) confirmation deals with the seeking of reinforcement for an innovation-decision already made and which might lead – if confronted with conflicting information- to a reversal of the previous decision (Rogers, 2003). Communication of and about the innovation is thus viewed a key success factor: “Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.” (Rogers' (1971, p. 5). Accordingly, previous studies have highlighted the role of communication campaigns to promote related new technologies such as battery-electric vehicles (Nilsson and Nykvist, 2016). This call, however, raises the question as to how communication campaigns might be designed to increase social acceptance of new technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells.

Communication sciences have pointed out several challenges in this regard, among others the risk of biased information processing and evaluation due to prior attitudes, described as confirmation bias. “ ‘Confirmation Bias‘ means that information is searched for, interpreted and remembered in such a way that it systematically impedes the possibility that the hypothesis is rejected – that is, it fosters the immunity of the hypothesis” (Oswald and Grosjean, 2004, p. 79). Based on cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957), research on confirmation bias has shown that prior-held beliefs influence information seeking (Schulz-Hardt et al., 2000); the evaluation of information (Fischer et al., 2011); and the memory of information (Stangor and McMillan, 1992) in such a way that initial beliefs are preserved.

This article examines to what extent and under which circumstances the findings from social psychology on confirmation bias apply to the communication of new renewable energies, using the example of hydrogen fuel cells. With regard to this question, it has to be noted that most of the results from social psychology have been created under strong experimental conditions. Concerning confirmation bias research, this includes in particular making decisions in experiments that are not representative of the everyday life of participants, mostly students. In decision scenarios from such studies that are relevant here, participants were, for example, asked to choose between different options for opening a snack stall, or asked whether the contract of an employee should be extended. Likewise, the information given to participants in previous studies is typically very limited. For example, in the scenario in which participants had to choose between offering diet (e.g. low fat and low carbohydrate) vs organic products at the snack stall, the following information was presented to participants: “Organic products are healthier than diet products. Thus, an organic stand can be recommended” (Fischer et al., 2011, p. 41). It often remains, however, unclear whether these results can be applied to, and thus have implications for, “real-world” contexts (Jonas et al., 2001, p. 558).

The basic idea of cognitive dissonance theory is quite straightforward: if a person holds two cognitions that are related but inconsistent, s/he experiences cognitive dissonance. As cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant state, people consciously or unconsciously seek to reduce the perceived dissonance. The idea is that in order to avoid cognitive dissonance, people are subject to confirmation bias and for confirmation bias to operate, there must be prior attitudes. It is the latter aspect that this study addresses.

To this end, first, as illustrated above, one must decide what the relevant attitudes are. Outside of a laboratory setting, particularly for new technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells, this is a rather complex question. For example, possible objects of study might be the role of general attitudes towards new technologies, their role in mitigation of climate change versus attitudes towards hydrogen fuel cells, or even more specifically, attitudes towards different applications of hydrogen fuel cells such as FCEVs or HFCs for heat and power. Second, taking into account previous findings on low awareness levels of new technologies (Achterberg et al., 2010, Zachariah-Wolff and Hemmes, 2006), attitude strength and stability is a point of discussion, e.g. the problem of “pseudo opinions” and “non-attitudes” (de Best-Waldhober et al., 2009), whereby individuals' opinions and attitudes change once they have more information about a topic.

In terms of the structure of this paper, we start with a short overview of the literature that has applied cognitive dissonance theory and confirmation bias in environmental contexts. Preconditions for confirmation bias to appear are identified, especially commitment towards particular attitudes. Taking the findings on preconditions into account, we review the state of research on attitudes towards hydrogen fuel cells with regard to the question of attitude strength and stability. In a cross-country survey study we further explore these aspects empirically. Findings from this survey indicate an overall low attitude strength and stability but also show country differences in this regard. Based on these findings, the role of prior attitudes for the design of communication campaigns in acceptance management of new technologies are discussed and implications for campaigns on awareness and acceptance management on hydrogen fuel cells in the seven countries are derived.