Factors influencing groundwater seepage in a large, mesotrophic lake in New York
Introduction
Groundwater is gaining recognition as an invisible but critical linkage between terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Streamside-groundwater interactions have been the focus of much of the research and over 400 publications have evaluated riparian buffers for their role as filters that help to protect water quality in associated streams (see reviews in Haycock et al., 1997). Many fewer scientific studies have evaluated the magnitude, timing, or chemistry of groundwater seepage along lake shorelines. Recent research has begun to quantify actual groundwater contributions directly through the use of seepage meters or indirectly through hydraulic gradient measurements derived from piezometer networks. This research indicates that the rates of groundwater flow vary temporally on weekly, seasonal, and inter-annual time scales (Downing and Peterka, 1978, Asbury, 1990; Shaw and Prepas, 1990a, Shaw and Prepas, 1990b; Snucins et al., 1992). Absolute rates of flow can vary by several orders of magnitude and also change in direction over these different time periods (Kenoyer and Anderson, 1989, Shaw and Prepas, 1990a, Schneider, 1994, Sebestyen and Schneider, 2001). Some exciting but limited evidence suggests that such changes in flow rates, particularly the alteration of high to very low flows, will influence the chemical composition of the discharging groundwater (Connor and Belanger, 1981, Schafran and Driscoll, 1990, Sebestyen and Schneider, 2004) with impacts on the productivity and health of shoreline plants (Loeb and Hackley, 1988, Lodge et al., 1989, Lillie and Barko, 1990, Hagerthey and Kerfoot, 1998).
In addition to temporal variability, there is also considerable spatial variability in seepage (Mitchell et al., 1988). Within lakes, flow may differ between sites only meters apart or among disparate shorelines (Brock et al., 1982, Schafran and Driscoll, 1990). Early theoretical models, verified by a diversity of field studies, predicted that flow rates would decrease exponentially with increasing distance from the lake edge (McBride and Pfannkuch, 1975, Brock et al., 1982; Winter, 1978, Winter, 1983; Pfannkuch and Winter, 1984, Cherkauer and Zager, 1989). However, a growing number of empirical studies contradicting this pattern have been reported, e.g. with discharge exhibiting offshore peaks, or increasing flow at greater distances offshore (Woessner and Sullivan, 1984, Mitchell et al., 1988, Shaw and Prepas, 1990a). These conflicting results suggest that the underlying processes controlling lakeshore seepage need additional clarification.
Spatial patterns in seepage may be further complicated by differences in shoreline substrates, which range in texture from organic mucks and clay–silts to sands or coarser textures. However, seepage meters, a commonly used technique for monitoring groundwater, are most easily installed in sandy substrates, with the result that little research has evaluated the role of substrate texture on flow rates or pore water chemistry. Mitchell et al. (1988), one of the few studies to consider this factor, reported a positive relationship between increasing flow rates and coarser sediments but noted that this effect was eliminated when permeable substrates overlaid an impermeable layer or conversely, when a thin layer of organic sediments overlaid highly permeable sands. Differences in substrate, from clay to sand or pebbles, may be one factor contributing to spatial differences and needs more evaluation.
Understanding the process of groundwater seepage, and the factors controlling it, has particular relevance for the sustainable management of larger lakes that serve as important resources to surrounding communities for drinking water supply, fisheries, recreation and other uses. Large lakes are more likely than small lakes and ponds to exhibit variation in shoreline substrates, aquifer characteristics, topography, or other features that have been shown to influence groundwater seepage processes. However, only a few studies have quantitatively examined the contribution of ground water seepage into larger lakes, e.g. greater than 100 km2 in size (Woessner and Sullivan, 1984, Cherkauer and McBride, 1988, Loeb and Hackley, 1988, Isiorho and Matisoff, 1989, Isiorho et al., 1996a, Isiorho et al., 1996b, Harvey et al., 1997).
Oneida Lake, in central New York, provides an ideal, large lake system in which to examine spatial influences on shoreline groundwater seepage. This mesotrophic lake has a surface area of approximately 207 km2, a perimeter length of 88 km, and is widely used for tourism, fishing, and recreation. The importance of the lake's healthy ecosystem was highlighted in a 2000 angler survey which demonstrated that approximately eight million dollars in revenue is generated in the surrounding communities from the lake's recreational fishery each year (Oneida Lake Watershed Management Plan and State of the Lake Report, 2002). Oneida Lake is a prime example of a well-studied ecosystem for which information on the process of groundwater seepage is strikingly absent. More than 120 papers have documented the tight linkages between Oneida Lake's fisheries, its water quality, nutrient availability, and the associated food webs (McQueen et al., 1992, Mellina et al., 1995). However, all of this research has made the general assumption that nutrients in the lake are derived solely from stream tributaries.
The overall goal of this study was to examine the potential importance of groundwater to the Oneida Lake ecosystem and the factors that influence it. Three more specific objectives were to: (a) document the rates, directions, spatial variability, and chemistry of groundwater entering a portion of the shoreline, (b) measure and compare rates of groundwater seepage at different locations around the entire 88 km perimeter of Oneida Lake; and (c) investigate the relationships between observed rates of groundwater flow and possible causal variables, including precipitation and substrate type. These objectives were accomplished through a series of complementary studies conducted during the summers of 1997–1999.
Section snippets
Study site
Oneida Lake (43°10′N, 75°52′W) is located in central New York, approximately 18 km northeast of the city of Syracuse (Fig. 1). The lake is shallow, with a mean depth of 6.8 m and maximum depth of 16.8 m, and the lake neatly divides its 3579 km2 watershed into two halves, from south to north. Land use in the southern half of the watershed predominantly consists of agriculture, suburban sprawl from the city of Syracuse, small towns, woodlands, and a 2100 ha swamp. Underlying geology in this half
Reference site—groundwater flow and chemistry
Groundwater discharged to the lake throughout the study site with an average seepage rate of 81.4 ml m−2 h−1 ±12.3 (±1 SE, n=648 readings from 14 m) during summer 1997. Discharge rates were highly variable temporally and were not observed to be at or near a constant rate (Fig. 3). Mean seepage rates were as high as 505 ml m−2 h−1 at times of peak ground water discharge with individual seepage meter rates as high as 1150 ml m−2 h−1 recorded. Rates of seepage also varied spatially, with consistently higher
Discussion
The combined approach of intensive studies at the reference site complemented by lake-wide monitoring and substrate sampling, resulted in a comprehensive portrait of groundwater seepage in Oneida Lake and provides useful insights into groundwater processes in other large lakes. The findings indicate that groundwater seepage is a significant and ubiquitous process throughout the entire 88 km perimeter of Oneida Lake and occurs at considerable distances across the lakebed. Several pieces of
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant from the US Department of Agriculture, CSREES Hatch project no. NYC-147447. C. Doughtery, M. Kalvestrand, as well as numerous private landowners provided invaluable field assistance. Dr Ed Mills generously gave access to the resources of the Cornell Biological Field Station. We also greatly appreciate the thoughtful comments of two anonymous reviewers.
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