Hydrological effect of vegetation against rainfall-induced landslides

doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.04.014

Journal of Hydrology

Volume 549, June 2017, Pages 374-387

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.04.014 Get rights and content

Highlights

•
Vegetation produced a consistent positive effect against rainfall-induced landslides.
•
Substantial differences between vegetated and fallow soil were observed.
•
Interception and stemflow effects were noticeable but minimal on slope stability.
•
Plant-derived matric suctions were successfully predicted with our approach.
•
Vegetated soil hydro-mechanical properties were highly relevant and need more study.

Abstract

The hydrological effect of vegetation on rainfall-induced landslides has rarely been quantified and its integration into slope stability analysis methods remains a challenge. Our goal was to establish a reproducible, novel framework to evaluate the hydrological effect of vegetation on shallow landslides. This was achieved by accomplishing three objectives: (i) quantification in situ of the hydrological mechanisms by which woody vegetation (i.e. Salix sp.) might impact slope stability under wetting and drying conditions; (ii) to propose a new approach to predict plant-derived matric suctions under drying conditions; and (iii) to evaluate the suitability of the unified effective stress principle and framework (UES) to quantify the hydrological effect of vegetation against landslides. The results revealed that plant water uptake was the main hydrological mechanism contributing to slope stability, as the vegetated slope was, on average, 12.84% drier and had matric suctions three times higher than the fallow slope. The plant-related mechanisms under wetting conditions had a minimal effect on slope stability. The plant aerial parts intercepted up to 26.73% of the rainfall and concentrated a further 10.78% of it around the stem. Our approach successfully predicted the plant-derived matric suctions and UES proved to be adequate for evaluating the hydrological effect of vegetation on landslides. Although the UES framework presented here sets the basis for effectively evaluating the hydrological effect of vegetation on slope stability, it requires knowledge of the specific hydro-mechanical properties of plant-soil composites and this in itself needs further investigation.

Introduction

Rainfall-induced landslides are global phenomena that result in loss of human life and damage to property every year (Sidle and Bogaard, 2016). They are normally triggered by a decrease in the soil shear strength after heavy rainfall events on sloped terrain (Lu and Godt, 2013). As a consequence of the predicted intensification of the hydrological cycle due to climate change (Roderick et al., 2014), the likelihood of rainfall-induced landslides is expected to increase, making the implementation of mitigation and remediation measures a priority.

Vegetation has been proven to be an effective landslide mitigation measure, as it enhances the soil shear strength via a series of mechanical and hydrological effects (Norris et al., 2008). While the mechanical effect of vegetation on slope stabilisation has been extensively studied (Wu, 1979, Mickovski et al., 2009, Bordoni et al., 2016), the plant hydrological effect, although acknowledged (Simon and Collison, 2002), has rarely been quantified and reported in the scientific literature (Stokes et al., 2014). Information on how vegetation performs hydrologically could significantly contribute to the effective and sustainable selection of plant species (Duan et al., 2016, McVicar et al., 2010) to reduce the likelihood of slope instability and the risks associated with it (Lu and Godt, 2013, Fell et al., 2005).

The hydrological effect of vegetation results from the interaction of different mechanisms occurring at the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum (Rodriguez-Iturbe and Porporato, 2004). These could be broadly divided into wetting and drying. During a rainfall event (wetting), vegetation may regulate the amount of water reaching the soil. The aerial parts (e.g. tree canopy) can intercept part of the precipitation (Llorens and Domingo, 2007) creating an “umbrella effect” that could attenuate the amount of rainfall available to infiltrate into the soil. However, part of the rainwater will reach the soil by flowing along the stem (i.e. stemflow; Levia and Germer, 2015). Stemflow could have negative consequences upon slope stability as the water funnels around the tree base and enters the soil as a jet through the root channels (i.e. bypass flow; e.g. Liang et al., 2011). Bypass flow may induce changes in the soil stress-state (Lu and Godt, 2013) or facilitate the formation of perched water tables at depth (e.g. Simon and Collison, 2002).

The drying mechanisms are those that tend to reduce the degree of saturation of the soil after a rainfall event. Vegetation may support the drainage of water from the root zone by loosening the soil and opening preferential flow channels via the root system (Liang et al., 2011). However, the most acknowledged drying mechanism is the plant water uptake (e.g. Laio, 2006), which involves the withdrawal of water from the soil to satisfy plant physiological needs and transpiration into the atmosphere (i.e. evapotranspiration; e.g. Rodriguez-Iturbe and Porporato, 2004). Plant transpiration is a markedly seasonal process in temperate climates (e.g. Wever et al., 2002) and the shading effect produced by the vegetation cover can further reduce direct soil evaporation (e.g. Raz-Yaseef et al., 2010). Nonetheless, plant transpiration is meant to generate a water flow exiting the soil (Laio, 2006). This would reduce the degree of soil saturation as well as the pore-water pressures (i.e. increasing the matric suction), potentially increasing the soil shear strength (Vanapalli et al., 1996, Gonzalez-Ollauri and Mickovski, 2017a). To date, models predicting the effect of plant transpiration on the soil stress-state are severely lacking (e.g. Scanlan, 2009).

The mechanisms by which vegetation may contribute hydrologically to slope stability have been investigated before (for review see Stokes et al., 2014). A recognised challenge, however, is their integration into slope stability analysis methods. The unified effective stress principle (UES; Lu and Likos, 2004) and framework (Lu and Giffiths, 2006, Lu and Godt, 2008, Lu et al., 2010), known in soil mechanics, permits the assessment of the state of stress in steep soil-mantled hillslopes under a range of water flow conditions – i.e. infiltration (wetting) or evaporation (drying). Considering these, the UES quantifies the resulting soil matric suction (Lu and Giffiths, 2006) and the associated suction stress (Lu et al., 2010); defined as the mechanical equivalent of the soil inter-particle stress. The suction stress has a negative value and affects positively (i.e. increases) the soil strength as its value becomes more negative (Lu and Godt, 2013). The intimate relationship of the suction stress to the matric suction (Lu and Likos, 2004, Lu and Likos, 2006) makes the former an ideal proxy to quantify plant-derived hydrological effects on slope stability (Gonzalez-Ollauri and Mickovski, 2017a). Vegetation affects the water flow conditions through the different mechanisms discussed above (i.e. rainfall interception, stemflow, water uptake) and, hence, the soil matric suction. However, this effect has not been tested before on soils under woody vegetation using field-derived information and the UES. The UES was conceived for soil only, while the plant roots form a composite material with the soil (Thorne, 1990). This material is likely to behave hydro-mechanically differently from a fallow soil (Gonzalez-Ollauri and Mickovski, 2017a) because the root systems will alter, among others, the pore size and distribution (Scanlan, 2009), the water retention dynamics (Carminati et al., 2010, Scholl et al., 2014) and the permeability of the soil (Vergani and Graf, 2015).

The aim of this study was to establish a reproducible novel framework for the evaluation of the hydrological effect of vegetation against rainfall-induced landslides. To achieve this, the following three objectives were set:

(i)
To quantify in situ the hydrological mechanisms by which woody vegetation (i.e. Salix sp.) may impact the stability of a small-scale, landslide-prone, temperate humid hillslope under wetting and drying conditions.
(ii)
To propose a new simplified approach to predict the plant-derived matric suction under drying conditions.
(iii)
To evaluate the suitability of the unified effective stress principle and framework for quantification of the hydrological effect of vegetation against rainfall-induced landslides.

Section snippets

Study site and plant individuals

The study site is located adjacent to Catterline Bay, Aberdeenshire, UK (WGS84 Long: −2.21 Lat: 56.90; Fig. 1a), within the temperate humid climate zone (Cgc: subpolar oceanic climate; Köppen, 1884). The mean annual temperature at the site is 8.9 °C and the mean annual rainfall is 565.13 mm (2011–2014; Gonzalez-Ollauri and Mickovski, 2016). The precipitation at the site is characterised by frequent, low-intensity rainfall events (Gonzalez-Ollauri and Mickovski, 2016). Well-drained (saturated

Wetting conditions

Stemflow volume was measured for the five selected willow individuals (Table 1) during the growing (July – October 2014) and dormant seasons (November 2014 – February 2015), respectively. For this, PVC stemflow gutters (Fig. 2a) were installed at breast height, spiralling around each tree stem and discharging into 25 L plastic containers. The stemflow volume (m³) was scaled with the canopy-crown area (Ac; m²; Table 1) and regressed against the gross rainfall (P_g; Deguchi et al., 2006) in the

Wetting conditions

The throughfall and stemflow (Table 3 and Fig. 5) showed a linear correlation with the gross rainfall (P_g) in all cases. Salix viminalis showed a positive rainfall interception capacity for the growing (S1: 26.73%; S2:22.03%) and dormant (S1:8.91%; S2:2.25%) seasons under both rainfall scenarios (Table 3). Salix caprea, however, only presented a positive rainfall interception capacity for the dormant season under both rainfall scenarios (S1:16.73%; S2:16.27%; Table 3). The overall canopy

Wetting conditions

The rainfall interception (i.e. gross rainfall minus throughfall) by Salix viminalis (Fig. 5a; Table 3) noticeably affected the amount of rain that eventually reached and entered the ground. This effect was observed to be seasonal (Table 3; Fig. 5a) due to foliage cover (Deguchi et al., 2006). However, under the heavy rainfall scenario (i.e.. S2; see 3.3.1), the interception capacity decreased (Table 3) as a result of the canopy saturation (van Dijk and Bruijnzeel, 2001). This suggests that under

Conclusion

This study provides a novel and reproducible framework that sets the basis for effective evaluation of the hydrological effect of vegetation on slope stability and to shed more light on the hydrological mechanisms involved. In light of our observations and findings, it can be concluded that:

•
When compared to fallow soil, willow had a noticeable hydrological effect on the soil. This was seen in differences in the recorded time series for u_a-u_w and θ_v, revealing the potential soil desaturation

Acknowledgments

The authors thank to Catterline Brae Action Group (CBAG) for site access and logistical support. Special thanks to Pieter voor de Porte for supplying meteorological data. The help of the students Leonardo Gentile and Gabriel Maraslis funded by Science Without Borders is greatly acknowledged. We are grateful to Elizabeth Mittell and Anita Meldrum for language and style editing. We also acknowledge the useful comments and suggestions from the Editors and two anonymous referees that helped us to

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Research papersHydrological effect of vegetation against rainfall-induced landslides

Highlights

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Study site and plant individuals

Wetting conditions

Wetting conditions

Wetting conditions

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Soil Tillage Res.

Geoderma

J. Hydrol.

J. Hydrol.

Ecol. Eng.

Geoderma

J. Hydrol.

Eng. Geol.

J. Hydrol.

J. Hydrol.

For. Ecol. Manage.

Ecol. Eng.

Biomass Bioenergy

Agric. For. Meteorol.

Earth Sci. Rev.

Ecol. Eng.

J. Hydrol.

Agric. For. Meteorol.

J. Hydrol.

J. Hydrol.

Agric. For. Meteorol.

Exploring the effects of microscale structural heterogeneity of forest canopies using large-eddy simulations

Bound.-Layer Meteorol.

Dynamics of soil water content in the rhizosphere

Plant Soil

Introductory Time Series With R

Craig’s Soil Mechanics

Integrated model for the hydro-mechanical effects of vegetation against shallow landslides

EQA

Shallow landslides as drivers for slope ecosystem evolution and biophysical diversity

Landslides

A framework for landslide risk assessment and management

Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing: Permeability. Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests

The thermal zones of the Earth according to the duration of hot, moderate amd cold periods and the impact of heat on the organic world

Meteorol. Z.

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A review on stemflow generation dynamics and stemflow-environment interactions in forests and shrublands

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Research papers
Hydrological effect of vegetation against rainfall-induced landslides