The bad boss takes it all: How abusive supervision and leader–member exchange interact to influence employee silence
Introduction
The past decade has witnessed a considerable academic and public interest in abusive supervision given its increasing occurrence in the workplace (Tepper, 2007, Whitman et al., 2014). Introduced by Tepper (2000, p. 178) as a dark-side leadership behavior, abusive supervision captures “subordinates' perceptions of the extent to which their supervisors engage in the sustained display of hostile verbal and non-verbal behaviors, excluding physical contact”. Such hostile behaviors include angry tantrums, public criticisms, and inappropriately assigned blame. Abusive supervision has incurred huge hidden costs to the organization in terms of increased counterproductive work behaviors and decreased organizational citizenship behaviors (see Martinko, Harvey, Brees, & Mackey, 2013 for a review). Current literature has also conceptualized such form of supervision as a salient workplace stressor that has detrimental psychological impacts on abused employees (Aryee et al., 2008, Chi and Liang, 2013, Whitman et al., 2014).
From the perspective of conservation of resources (COR) theory, abused subordinates rarely report or retaliate against their higher-status supervisors because they are dependent on their supervisors for desirable resources such as continued employment and advancement opportunities (Harvey et al., 2007, Tepper et al., 2007). To preserve their limited resources and alleviate their psychological discomfort, they tend to adopt avoidant or passive coping strategy by distancing themselves from the sources of stress (Tepper et al., 2007). Research suggests that victims of abuse may engage in regulative tactics (i.e., attempts to maintain relationships by avoiding contact; Tepper et al., 2007) and feedback avoidance behaviors (i.e., attempts to intentionally evade feedback from the supervisor; Whitman et al., 2014). Thus, employee silence, referring to employees' intentional withholding of critical or seemingly important information, ideas, questions, concerns or opinions about issues relating to their jobs and the organizations in which they work (e.g., Brinsfield et al., 2009, Tangirala and Ramanujam, 2008, Van Dyne et al., 2003), should be another employees' natural and logical response to supervisors' abuse. Unfortunately, existing knowledge on the relationship between abusive supervision and employee silence remains limited (Morrison, 2014). The present study aims to extend this line of research by proposing emotional exhaustion, “a chronic state of emotional and physical depletion” (Harvey et al., 2007, p. 266), as a core mediating mechanism. In particular, we propose employee silence as a safe response for subordinates to conserve the remaining resources caused by emotional exhaustion rooted from abusive supervision.
Besides leaders' behavior, the relationship quality between a leader and a follower also exerts pivotal impact on the follower's reactions (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). While abusive supervision represents specific harmful supervisory behavior that occurs at any time during daily interactions (Tepper & Henle, 2011), leader–member exchange (LMX) refers to the overall quality of a supervisor–subordinate relationship that develops over time (Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer, & Ferris, 2012). To broaden our understanding of how bad leadership behavior and leader–follower relationship quality may interactively influence subordinates' well-being and behavior, we further predict in this research that LMX moderates the above proposed relationships. Building on COR theory, we postulate that abusive supervision in a high-quality LMX relationship can be more threatening to subordinates' valued resources, which culminates in heightened emotional exhaustion and silence behavior. Fig. 1 presents our hypothesized model.
The present research contributes to the current literature in several ways. First of all, it broadens our existing knowledge on the deleterious impacts of abusive supervision. By linking supervisors' abuse to employee silence, we answer the call of Tepper et al. (2007) for more research on subordinates' passive responses other than the well-established aggressive ones in order to capture the full picture of what goes on under abusive supervision. Besides taking aggressive reactions which may aggravate or ultimately terminate their relationships with supervisors (Tepper et al., 2007), there are still a number of subordinates adopting passive coping strategy to supervisory abuse (Chi and Liang, 2013, Wu and Hu, 2013). It is theoretically and practically important to understand how these employees work with their abusive supervisors on a daily basis (Tepper et al., 2007, Whitman et al., 2014). In this regard, silence is a particularly important passive reaction due to its widespread detrimental impact on organizations at all levels (Morrison, 2014). A bundle of well-known organizational tragedies, such as the collapse of Enron and Worldcom, have occurred due to employee silence. Moreover, without critical and timely information from lower-level employees, organizations fail to correct potentially serious problems and obtain instant ideas for continuous improvement (Milliken and Morrison, 2003, Morrison and Milliken, 2000, Tangirala and Ramanujam, 2008).
Second, by examining the moderating role of LMX, this study further extends this research stream by providing a relational context within which abuse exerts harmful influence. Most leadership research today has exclusively focused on either leadership behavior (i.e., leader-based domain) or supervisor–subordinate dyadic relationship (i.e., relationship-based domain; Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995, Lian et al., 2012). The present study thus makes important contributions to the extant leadership literature by simultaneously taking abusive supervisory behavior and LMX into account and examining their interactive impact on subordinates from a resource conservation perspective.
Last but not least, despite the well-acknowledged harmful impact of silence, research on its antecedents is surprisingly scant (see Morrison, 2014 for a review). The present study also makes an important addition to this inadequacy by investigating the leadership influence (i.e., abusive supervision and LMX) as well as the underlying process of emotional exhaustion. From a practical aspect, our findings further call organizations' attention to the crippling impact of abusive supervision and provide important implications for organizations to prevent silence. It further draws supervisors' awareness regarding the impact of their leadership practice on subordinates' well-being and silence decisions.
Section snippets
Conservation of resources (COR) theory
COR theory presents a comprehensive process of how stress occurs and how individuals respond to stress. The central tenet resides in this theory is that “individuals strive to retain, protect, and build resources” (Hobfoll, 1989, p. 516) such as social support, personal characteristics, time, and energy. Resources are valued because they not only have the instrumental value of offering people means to fulfill important and meaningful goals, but also carry the symbolic value of identifying
Sample and procedure
We conducted a two-phase questionnaire survey by collecting responses from employees working in the service industry in Macau, People's Republic of China. In July 2013 (Time-1), we distributed questionnaires to 220 full-time employees through a training course offered by a local university. On the cover page of the questionnaire, we explained the voluntary nature of this survey and assured anonymity and confidentiality to the participants. We also provided the contact information of the third
Results
We first conducted a series of confirmatory factor analyses to examine the distinctiveness of our study constructs. The four-factor measurement model (i.e., abusive supervision, LMX, emotional exhaustion, and silence) had a good model fit, with chi-square of 534.32 (df = 293, p < .01), CFI of .94, IFI of .94, and SRMR of .06. We further examined several alternative measurement models and compared them with the four-factor model. As shown in Table 1, the four-factor model fits our data better than
Discussion
Abusive supervision has been regarded as a costly organizational problem that warrants continued investigation (Martinko et al., 2013, Tepper, 2007). Using two-phase data collected in China, we found that abusive supervision predicted subordinates' emotional exhaustion, which further promoted their decision to remain silent in the workplace. In addition, our results revealed that the presence of high LMX magnified the detrimental impact of perceived supervisory abuse on victims' emotional
Conclusion
Leadership plays a critical role in organizational survival and success in terms of its impact on followers' reactions and behaviors in the workplace. Through the theoretical underpinning of COR, the present study examines how abusive supervision, a dark-side leadership behavior, interacts with LMX to trigger employees' feelings of emotional exhaustion and their subsequent silence response. We hope our findings could stimulate more inquiries into how leadership exerts its influence from a broad
References (76)
- et al.
When do subordinates' emotion-regulation strategies matter? Abusive supervision, subordinates' emotional exhaustion, and work withdrawal
The Leadership Quarterly
(2013) - et al.
Relationship based approach to leadership: Development of leader–member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-domain perspective
The Leadership Quarterly
(1995) - et al.
Coping with abusive supervision: The neutralizing effects of ingratiation and positive affect on negative employee outcomes
The Leadership Quarterly
(2007) - et al.
Silenced by fear: The nature, sources, and consequences of fear at work
Research in Organizational Behavior
(2009) - et al.
Does taking the good with the bad make things worse? How abusive supervision and leader–member exchange interact to impact need satisfaction and organizational deviance
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
(2012) - et al.
Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions
(1991) - et al.
The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization
Journal of Occupational Psychology
(1990) - et al.
Abusive supervision and contextual performance: The mediating role of emotional exhaustion and the moderating role of work unit structure
Management and Organization Review
(2008) - et al.
The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
(1986) - et al.
The enigma of social support and occupational stress: Source congruence and gender role effects
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology
(2003)
The psychology of interpersonal relationships
The personal costs of citizenship behavior: The relationship between individual initiative and role overload, job stress, and work–family conflict
Journal of Applied Psychology
Counterproductive work behaviours in response to emotional exhaustion: A moderated mediational approach
Stress and Health
Voice and silence in organizations: Historical review and current conceptualizations
Back-translation for cross-cultural research
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Quitting before leaving: The mediating effects of psychological attachment and detachment on voice
Journal of Applied Psychology
Organizational justice and individuals' withdrawal: Unlocking the influence of emotional exhaustion
Journal of Management Studies
The convergent validity of two burnout instruments: A multitrait–multimethod analysis
European Journal of Psychological Assessment
Implicit voice theories: Taken-for-granted rules of self-censorship at work
Academy of Management Journal
Speaking up to higher-ups: How supervisors and skip-level leaders influence employee voice
Organization Science
Leader–member exchange model of leadership: A critique and further development
Academy of Management Review
Social undermining in the workplace
Academy of Management Journal
A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader–member exchange integrating the past with an eye toward the future
Journal of Management
Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis
Psychological Methods
On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as psychological discomfort
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Approach or avoidance (or both?): Integrating core self-evaluations within an approach/avoidance framework
Personnel Psychology
A new look at marital quality: Can spouses feel positive and negative about their marriage?
Journal of Family Psychology
Emotional exhaustion in a high stress organization
Academy of Management Journal
Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing
Research in Organizational Behavior
When leaders fail to “walk the talk”: Supervisor undermining and perceptions of leader hypocrisy
Journal of Management
Voice and silence in organizations
Sources of social support and burnout: A meta-analytic test of the conservation of resources model
Journal of Applied Psychology
Emotional exhaustion and job performance: The mediating role of motivation
Journal of Applied Psychology
Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach
Conservation of resources: A new attempt to conceptualize stress
American Psychologist
The influence of culture, community, and the nested self in the stress process: Advancing conservation of resources theory
Applied Psychology: An International Review
Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology
Stress and burnout in the workplace: Conservation of resources
Cited by (234)
Abuse of power: An experimental investigation of the effects of power and transparency on centralized punishment
2024, Journal of Economic Behavior and OrganizationEmployee silence in an organizational context: A review and research agenda
2023, European Management JournalCitation Excerpt :This is because when individuals speak out, they often lose more resources than they gain. Thus, they make the trade-off and decide to remain silent (Xu et al., 2015). Finally, the spiral of silence theory explains how an individual from a minority group will engage in silence whilst interacting with the majority group because they feel that talking will cause a problematic situation due to the fact that they are different and hold different views (Fox & Holt, 2018).
When subordinates do not follow: A typology of subordinate resistance as perceived by leaders
2023, Leadership Quarterly