The role of meaning in life and optimism in promoting well-being

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Abstract

This study examined the relationship between meaning in life, optimism and well-being among adolescents. A total of 1807 adolescents in Hong Kong completed inventories that assessed their personality, psychosocial problems and life satisfaction. Results of structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that both meaning in life and optimism significantly associated with multidimensional life satisfaction and multidimensional structure of psychosocial problems among adolescents. Optimism also served as a partial mediator in the relationships between meaning in life and both positive and negative aspects of well-being. The mediating role of optimism did not differ across gender.

Introduction

Extensive research has documented links between personality traits and well-being (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998). Both meaning in life and optimism emerge as important predictors of well-being (Halama and Dedova, 2007, Wrosch and Scheier, 2003). However, how these traits work together in accounting for variation in well-being is rarely examined. The purpose of this study was to investigate the associations between optimism, meaning in life and well-being among Chinese adolescents. Specifically, we examined how these personality traits related to adolescents’ positive and negative aspects of well-being.

Previous studies examining meaning in life focused mainly on adults, but adolescents are under-investigated, and it is unknown whether meaning in life has an impact on well-being among adolescents. Finding meaning in life and establishing a philosophy of life are the critical issues undergoing development during the period of adolescence, as they are in the stage of identity vs. role confusion (Erikson, 1982). Consequently, it is important to realize whether meaning in life is a useful predictor of well-being among adolescents.

Meaning in life is typically referred to as a sense of coherence or understanding of existence, a sense of purpose in one’s life, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment (Baumeister, 1991, Reker and Wong, 1988, Ryff and Singer, 1998, Yalom, 1980). Meaning in life is assumed to be cognitive in nature. The cognitive dimension of meaning in life includes beliefs that there is an ultimate purpose in life, beliefs in moral laws, beliefs in afterlife (Wong, 1998). Bering (2003) suggested that meaning in life is enabled by a set of cognitive skills, such as making attributions of purpose and meaning, and finding intentionality in their personal life. Additionally, individual differences in meaning in life have been found in previous research. For example individuals vary in the degree to which they contemplate and seek meaning in life (Mascaro & Rosen, 2008).

In this study, we conceptualized meaning in life as a cognitive personality trait, as it is primarily rooted in human cognition and differs between individuals. The operationalization of meaning in life is having meaningful goals and motives for goal striving. The cognitive perspective of personality is the idea that individuals are who they are because of the way they think (Mischel, 1999).

There is empirical evidence that meaning in life contributes to well-being (Ryff, 1989). Several studies have shown that meaning in life was positively linked to life satisfaction (Zika & Chamberlain, 1992), achievement striving (Steger, Kashdan, Sullivan, & Lorentz, 2008), and self-esteem (Rathi & Rastogi, 2007), and negatively related to depressive and anxiety symptoms (Riichiro & Masahiko, 2006).

Optimism is a personality disposition, and is affective in nature (Schutte, Valerio, & Carrillo, 1996). Optimism refers to the generalized expectation of positive versus negative outcomes in important domains of life (Scheier & Carver, 1985). In this study, optimism is conceptualized as an affective personality trait. The operationalization of optimism is an individual’s affective outlook to life. The affective dimension of personality refers to individual differences in the intensity of emotional reactions to daily events (Miller, 1991). Optimism reflects the human capacity to anticipate a positive future (Reker, 1997). Optimism and pessimism refers to the generalized expectancies that pertain more or less to the person’s entire life space (Carver & Scheier, 2005).

The associations between optimism and well-being have been found in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. For instance, optimism was related to self-esteem, low depression, low negative emotions, and life satisfaction (Wrosch & Scheier, 2003). Ben-Zur (2003) found that optimism was negatively associated with negative affect and positively associated with positive affect among adolescents.

Empirical studies have examined the relationships between meaning in life and well-being, yet little attention has been paid to the systematic study of the underlying mechanism that promotes well-being. Previous research has shown that people who derive a sense of meaning in life tend to have higher levels of optimism (Krause, 2003). It is also plausible that adaptive cognitive strategies (e.g., making attributions of purpose and meaning) may create an influx of positive emotions (e.g., optimism), which ultimately leads to gains in well-being.

The underlying mechanism of well-being can be explained by the self-concordance model (Sheldon & Elliott, 2000) and cognitive-affective processing system (CAPS; Mischel & Shoda, 1995). The self-concordance model assumes that autonomous goal motivation would predict positive expectancies, which finally predict enhanced well-being (Sheldon & Cooper, 2008). People who have meaningful goals and engage in meaning making activities experience greater self-concordance (i.e., identification with and interest in continuing these exercises), which in turn, is associated with more frequently engaging in those activities. The more frequently people engage in these activities or goal-attainment, the greater positive expectancies (i.e., optimism) they have. Finally, and most important, the greater gains in positive expectancies appear to contribute to well-being. The association between attaining meaningful goals and outcomes (i.e., well-being) seems to be mediated by positive expectancies (i.e., optimism).

Within the CAPS model, motives play a crucial role in goal seeking, the situations people approach or avoid, and their emotional reactions to such situations (Shoda & Smith, 2004). It has been emphasized that cognitive information processing (i.e., future-oriented pursuit of meaningful goals) profoundly influence affects and emotions (Lazarus, 1991). The influence of cognitive information processing about the outcomes can be mediated by an individual’s affective state. For example, when a meaningful goal is attained, a person experiences a positive affective state (i.e., optimistic about the future) and obtains positive feedback about the outcomes (i.e., well-being). Both the self-concordance model and CAPS suggest that goal-attainment (i.e., finding meaning in life) have beneficial impact on positive expectancies or affects (i.e., optimism), which in turn enhance well-being. Hence, we predicted that the underlying pathway from meaning in life to well-being is through optimism.

Empirical investigations into the relationship between meaning in life and well-being have seldom incorporated positive and negative aspects of well-being. Chamberlain (1988) argued that positive and negative aspects of well-being are not just opposite ends of a continuum. Increasing evidence suggests that specific predictors associate with one aspect of well-being but not the other. For instance, self-efficacy was identified as a specific predictor of positive well-being, whereas neuroticism as a specific predictor of negative well-being (Karademas, 2007). Two separate measures of the dependent variable may be needed when analyzing the determinants of well-being. Thus, in this study, both positive and negative aspects of well-being were assessed. Positive aspects of well-being were measured by domain-specific satisfaction, while negative well-being was assessed by psychosocial problems.

The purpose of this study was to examine the associations among meaning in life, optimism, and well-being. Specifically, we hypothesized that: (1) meaning in life would be positively associated with domain-specific satisfaction and negatively associated with psychosocial problems; (2) optimism would be positively associated with domain-specific satisfaction and negatively associated with psychosocial problems; and (3) optimism would mediate the links between meaning in life and domain-specific satisfaction, and the relations between meaning in life and psychosocial problems.

Section snippets

Participants

A total of 1807 adolescents (45.9% males, 52.4% females) in Hong Kong participated in this study. The participants were students recruited from 21 secondary schools in Hong Kong. The age of the sample ranged from 12 to 18, with a mean age of 15.19 years (SD = 1.72). The data were collected from a stratified sample of 21 secondary schools in Hong Kong based on the characteristics of these schools (e.g. geographic location and schools’ scholastic standing), aiming to cover a wide range of school

Results

The means and standard deviations of the total sample on CPAI-A personality scales (O–P and LIF), clinical scales (ANX, DEP, ALI and S-M), and CALSS (domain-specific satisfaction) are summarized in Table 1.

Correlational analysis was used to examine the relationship between personality variables (i.e., O–P and LIF) and positive and negative well-being, see Table 2.

Meaning in life and well-being

Hypothesis 1 meaning in life would be positively associated with domain-specific satisfaction and negatively associated with psychosocial symptoms was supported. The results of this study are consistent with previous research demonstrating links between meaning in life and well-being (Ryff, 1989, Zika and Chamberlain, 1992). The findings highlight the significance of meaning in life to multidimensional satisfaction. The cognitive dimension of meaning in life is determined by one’s value system

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