Meaning and membership: samples in rap music, 1979–1995

Abstract

This paper uses art works as the units of analysis to examine the constitution of a musical art world. I utilize data from rap music – a successful genre with a non-traditional musical score comprised of lyrics, music and samples of other recordings. In particular, I analyze the use of 750 musical samples in 473 rap songs that appeared on the weekly Billboard Top 100 R&B Singles charts from 1979 to 1995. Valuation of rap music rests in part on qualities of sample use. In particular, the qualities of samples include the identifiability of source material, the cost of its use, technical amenability to the process (pragmatic distinction), and musical or political attributes (symbolic distinction). These valuations tell listeners how to sort rappers into artistic circles, or sub-genres. These valuations and signals shift over time, as do the boundaries of these artistic circles. In sum, rap artists use samples to assert meaning and identity, just as other artists use literary reference or allegory. This study offers novel data for studying meaning and membership in creative industries.

Introduction

Since White and White (1965) sociologists of culture have emphasized the networked character of art worlds (Anheier et al., 1995, Becker, 1982, Faulkner, 1983, Fine, 1992, Giuffre, 1999, Kadushin, 1976, White, 1993). In networked art worlds, groups of artists explore the expression of certain ideas; aid each other in the execution and perfection of form; and share advice, gossip, practice and performance space, and fans. Networking is a sorting process wherein homophilous tastes are matched. It is also a productive process, as artists and audience members manifest tastes in order to gain membership to one or more groups. These artistic circles provide a context for competition and cooperation among artists, and they produce in part the modes of apperception, or distinctions, used to evaluate art works. Artists and audience members within these circles teach each other what is “valuable” about a particular performance. Distinction operates on and within art works, and some of these distinctions adhere in the art works themselves.

Becker (1982: 36) argued that “by observing how an art world makes…distinctions…we can understand much of what goes on in that world.” How do sociologists observe art worlds making distinctions? Surveys, participant observation, ethnography have all been utilized to tap into how individuals and groups perceive difference. However, at the heart of how we think about distinction are cultural meanings embedded in the objects themselves. In this article, I model data from rap music production that directly measures these cultural meanings.

In rap music, samples – prerecorded sonic performances that are subsequently used in new songs – function as some of rap’s musical notes and capture processes of distinction. As part of rap’s musical score, samples document patterns of distinction between groups of musicians. Rappers use particular samples to distinguish themselves from, and draw similarities to, other artists. In this way, rappers create musical links to others in their artistic circle. Consequently, an examination of the patterning of particular samples in rap songs depicts an art world by utilizing the links among artworks themselves.