A uniquely broad spectrum diet during the Middle Pleistocene at Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain)
Introduction
The systematic use of small animals is related to subsistence diversification, mainly by adding new species to the diet, in response to the carrying capacity of an environment increasingly constrained by climate instability at the end of the Pleistocene. This phenomenon is known as the “Broad Spectrum Revolution” hypothesis (Flannery, 1969, Stiner et al., 1999, Stiner et al., 2000, Stiner, 2001). On this basis, several explanations for the inclusion of small game in the human diet have been proposed, including different factors such as demographic, ecological, nutritional and technological aspects and mobility of hunter-gatherer groups (Binford, 1968, Flannery, 1969, Villaverde et al., 1996, Hockett and Bicho, 2000, Pérez Ripoll, 2001, Martínez Valle, 2001, Stiner, 2001, Hockett and Haws, 2002, Stiner and Munro, 2002, Aura et al., 2002, Jones, 2006). For Hockett and Bicho (2000) and Jones (2006), some explanations contain more value than others, such as technological innovations of traps and nets, which permitted exploitation of small game with a higher energetic return. However, the regular acquisition and consumption of small prey in the pre-Upper Palaeolithic times is still a highly debated topic in Europe. Several researchers state that the systematic use of small animals is focused on Upper and Epi-Palaeolithic periods (Isaac and Crader, 1981, Villaverde et al., 1996, Martínez Valle, 2001, Pérez Ripoll, 2001, Pérez Ripoll, 2005, Aura et al., 2002, Lupo and Schmitt, 2002, Hockett and Haws, 2002), arguing that these animals contribute little energy to the human diet or that capturing them requires the use of other technological innovations, which are mainly linked to anatomically modern humans. In these cases, Isaac and Crader (1981) consider that acquiring small prey is closer to gathering than hunting. Nevertheless, some authors propose that the small animals began to be important in the human diet from at least the early Middle Palaeolithic in the Mediterranean Basin, some 200 ka onward (Klein and Scott, 1986, Stiner and Tchernov, 1998, Stiner, 2001, Stiner, 2005). However, sporadic consumption of small prey dates back to the Plio-Pleistocene chronologies in some sites, such as Bed I at Olduvai (Tanzania), in which the occasional use of Erinaceus broomi was suggested (Fernández-Jalvo et al., 1999a, Fernández-Jalvo et al., 1999b). In the Lower Pleistocene, anthropogenic evidence was identified on birds at Dursunlu (Turkey) (Güleç et al., 2009), on aquatic small animals at the Oldowan site of FwJJ20 (Kenya) (Braun et al., 2010) and on avian and lagomorph bones at Sima del Elefante (Spain) (Huguet, 2007). In the Middle Pleistocene, burning damage was observed on tortoise bones at Qesem Cave in Israel (Stiner et al., 2009), cutmarks on the leporids remains were identified at Level G of Caune de l’Arago (Costamagno and Laroulandie, 2004), at Level C1 of Terra Amata and at Orgnac 3 in France (Guennouni, 2001). Evidence for occasional consumption of small prey was also observed at Grotte de Lazaret, with dating around MIS 6 (Jullien and Pillard, 1969, Lumley et al., 2004, Roger, 2004).
The avian remains require special attention. The bird bones have been systematically studied to determine the time of site occupation and past environmental conditions. However, too little attention has been given to the cultural significance of these in the archaeological sites. Nevertheless, there are some cases, such as the bird accumulations in the Middle Pleistocene of the Áridos site (Spain), which were interpreted by Mourer-Chauviré (1980) as the result of human hunting. This hypothesis could be problematic because the avian skeletal representation of this site is not biased. In these cases, the identification of other diagnostic elements of anthropogenic processing on skeletal remains should be considered. In this sense, incisions were noted on Aquila chrysaetos phalanges in the Mousterian site of Pech de l’Aze in France (Mourer-Chauviré, 1975, Soressi et al., 2008) and on several raptors at final Mousterian levels of Fumane Cave in Italy (Fiore et al., 2004, Peresani et al., in press). Also, sporadic cutmarks on Cygnus cygnus remains were recovered at Mousterian Level XV from Baume de Gigny in France (Mourer-Chauviré, 1989).
As in the case of birds, the chelonian remains have also been studied regulary with the aim of making paleoclimatic reconstructions in the archaeological sites. However, the anthropogenic component has often been present in these interpretations. From this perspective, human consumption of chelonian is known from other Middle Palaeolithic localities, such as Kebara Cave and Hayonim Cave in Israel (Speth and Tchernov, 2002, Stiner, 2005, Stiner et al., 2009), Grotta Breuil and Moscerini in Italy (Stiner, 1994, Stiner et al., 2000), and Cueva de los Torrejones and Abric Pastó in Spain (Arribas et al., 1997, Morales Pérez and Sanchís Serra, 2009). They are also known in Middle Stone Age sites in South Africa, such as Blombos Cave (Henshilwood et al., 2001), Die Kelders Cave (Klein and Cruz-Uribe, 2000), Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Thompson, 2010), Ysterfontein Rock Shelter and Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Halkett et al., 2003) and at Later Stone Age sites, such as Byneskranskop Cave 1 (Klein and Cruz-Uribe, 1983), Eland’s Bay Cave (Klein and Cruz-Uribe, 1987), Dunefield Midden (Parkington et al., 1992), Geelbek (Avery et al., 2004) and Haaskraal Shelter (Sampson, 1998).
From this perspective, the use of small prey for food dates back to the Plio-Pleistocene, but this seems to be sporadic or occasional in the documented sites. In contrast, at Bolomor Cave, the consumption of small prey is common and repeated throughout the entire stratigraphic sequence. At this site, cutmarks on leporid bones (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are documented repeatedly from MIS 9 to MIS 5e (Sanchis Serra and Fernández Peris, 2008, Sanchis Serra, 2010, Blasco et al., 2010), anthropogenic processing marks are also observed systematically on tortoise remains (Testudo hermanni) at Level IV (Blasco, 2008), on swan bones (Cygnus olor) at Level XII (Blasco et al., 2010) and on Aythya sp. remains at Level XI (Blasco and Fernández Peris, 2009), among other. From this perspective, this paper aims to provide available data on the human consumption of small prey from Bolomor Cave and to contribute to knowledge about the human groups’ way of life in the Middle Pleistocene.
Section snippets
Methodology
The faunal analysis of the Bolomor Cave site was carried out following standard archaeozoological methods (Lyman, 1994, Reitz and Wing, 1999). Anatomical, taxonomic and modification details were recorded. To assess completeness of the sample, NR (number of remains) or NISP (number of identified specimens), MNE (minimum number of elements), MNI (minimum number of individuals) and skeletal survival rate (Brain, 1981, Lyman, 1994) were calculated. Skeletal survival rate estimates the proportion
Bolomor Cave
Bolomor Cave is located on the southern slope of the Valldigna valley, approximately 2 km southeast of the town of Tavernes (Valencia, Spain) (Fig. 1). Valldigna is a narrow and short valley which has the Iberian mountain range at North and the Prebetic mountain range at South. To the east of this site, there is a wide coastal plain next to the Mediterranean Sea. The cave is situated approximately 100 m above sea level. Bolomor Cave is a karst cavity opened to the exterior approximately 500 ka, as
Data presentation
The data presented in this study from Level XVII (the most ancient level of the stratigraphical sequence), Level XII and Level XI (levels located in the middle of the stratigraphy) and Level IV (one of the upper levels). This perspective provides a general palaeoeconomic view of the human groups who occupied Bolomor Cave during the Middle Pleistocene.
Discussion
The faunal record from Bolomor Cave is characterized mainly by its high anthropic component and its very low incidence of carnivores. From this perspective, damages generated by non-human predators are scarce with percentages between 0.5% and 3.0%. In the same way, the recovered skeletal elements belonging to these animals are also sporadic. An example of this is the Carnivore/Ungulate ratio observed at the site: less than 0.7% in the whole stratigraphical sequence (0.09–0.7%) (Fernández Peris,
Conclusions
Bolomor Cave contains a sedimentary deposit composed of 17 stratigraphical levels ranging from MIS 9 to MIS 5e. From zooarchaeological study of the main levels of this site (Levels XVII, XII, XI and IV), anthropogenic evidence on a high diversity of species has been identified. The spectrum of taxa includes Cercopithecinae, carnivores, lagomorphs, birds and tortoises, in addition to ungulates.
The carnivore and Cercopithecinae consumption are isolated cases in the stratigraphical sequence of
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to Sabine Gaudzinski-Windheuser and Lutz Kindler, organizers of ICAZ 2010 session (S4-3: Hominin subsistence in the Old World during the Pleistocene and Early Holocene) for your invitation to participate. Thanks to the Prehistory Museum of Valencia, to the SIP (Prehistoric Investigation Service) and to the Conselleria de Cultura of the Generalitat Valenciana for their economic contributions to the excavation. Thanks to the fieldwork team that allows carry out these studies.
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