Spatial and temporal variations of summer surface temperatures of high-arctic tundra on Svalbard — Implications for MODIS LST based permafrost monitoring
Research Highlights
► Monitoring of summer surface temperatures of arctic tundra using thermal imaging. ► Average differences of up to 4K between wet and dry areas. ► Pronounced spatial differences of the thaw index. ► MODIS LST can reproduce weekly averages to within 2K most of the time.
Introduction
Permafrost occurs in about a quarter of the land masses in the Northern Hemisphere (Brown et al., 1997). Particularly in arctic and subarctic regions of Russia, Canada and Alaska, permafrost-related processes play a crucial role in the energy and water cycle and thus determine the hydrology and ecology of these regions. In the past decade, a wealth of studies has gathered convincing observational and modeling evidence for a sustained warming of the Arctic (e.g. Comiso et al., 2008, Hinzman et al., 2005, Overland et al., 2008, Serreze et al., 2000, Turner et al., 2007). The ongoing warming is reflected in increasing permafrost temperatures (e.g. Osterkamp, 2005), and a sizable reduction of the permafrost area is projected until 2100 (Delisle, 2007, Lawrence et al., 2008).
Permafrost areas have received increased attention through scenarios, which suggest a positive climatic feedback due to massive emissions of methane from thawing organic-rich permafrost soils (e.g. Walter et al., 2006, Zimov et al., 2006). Furthermore, anticipated changes in the hydrological cycle and the landcover and vegetation may have strong impacts at least on the regional scale (e.g. Chapin et al., 2005). Considering such drastic projections, it seems imperative to continuously map and monitor the thermal state of the permafrost world-wide in order to assess its vulnerability to climate change. While a monitoring program of permafrost temperatures in boreholes has been initiated (Burgess et al., 2000), it is evident that the vast and remote permafrost areas cannot be sufficiently covered by such a labor-intensive scheme alone. It is thus desirable to better exploit the potential of remotely sensed data sets to complement terrestrially based monitoring. However, as permafrost is a ground temperature phenomenon, none of the potential measures used to characterize permafrost, such as the thaw depth, the unfrozen water content or the temperature at a certain depth, is directly accessible through remote sensing techniques. Some studies have evaluated the performance of proxies for the state of the permafrost, such as the occurrence of certain vegetation types (Stow et al., 2004, Walker et al., 2003) or the increase or shrinkage of lakes (Smith et al., 2005, Yoshikawa and Hinzman, 2003), which can be detected in high-resolution satellite images in the visible (VIS) or near-infrared (NIR) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, such indicators are usually only meaningful for limited areas, so that it seems questionable that they can be used for a larger-scale monitoring.
Remotely sensed land surface temperatures (LST) are a more universal proxy. In long-term records of satellite-derived LST, a warming trend over the arctic land masses has been observed (Comiso, 2006, Comiso and Parkinson, 2004), but the implications for the thermal state of the permafrost remain debatable, since the relationship between LST and subsurface temperatures is complex. In permafrost regions with a dense vegetation cover, for instance, satellites can only access the top temperature of the canopy which may be different from the actual ground surface temperature relevant for the permafrost. However, modeling schemes can be employed in order to assess the subsurface conditions based on the surface or even top-of-canopy information provided by satellite-based LST measurements. Various levels of complexity are conceivable, from a simple frost and thaw index approach (Nelson & Outcalt, 1987) to transient conductive heat transfer models, which deliver the full temperature distribution in the ground (e.g. Romanovsky & Osterkamp, 1997). Marchenko et al. (2009) propose a permafrost monitoring scheme based on the existing time series of remotely sensed LST and an equilibrium permafrost model (Sazonova & Romanovsky, 2003), which could deliver active layer thickness and mean annual ground temperatures on the pan-arctic scale. Despite of the large number of required additional input parameters, such as information on the snow cover and the composition of the soil, such concepts may possess the flexibility to incorporate the full range of different climatic, geological and ecological conditions found in permafrost areas. The application of such an LST-based scheme for Northern Quebec and Labrador, Canada (Hachem et al., 2009) highlights the prospects for large-scale permafrost monitoring.
The land surface temperature is currently accessible by a number of remote sensing platforms, some of which provide a high overpass frequency at the expense of spatial resolution (e.g. Terra MODIS, Aqua MODIS, ERS-AATSR, and NOAA-AVHRR), while others follow the opposite concept (e.g. Landsat TM and Terra ASTER). For the purpose of permafrost monitoring, daily to monthly LST averages are required, as high-frequency fluctuations of the surface temperature, such as the daily cycle, are damped close to the surface and do not affect the temperature evolution of deeper soil layers. However, accurate temporal averages of LST can only be obtained, if a sufficient overpass frequency is provided. In this point, satellite platforms such as Terra/Aqua MODIS, which under ideal conditions are even capable to resolve the daily cycle, are superior to high-resolution sensors such as Landsat TM, which can only provide a few measurements per averaging period. On the other hand, as strong variations of the surface cover and the soil moisture conditions occur on scales of meters in permafrost regions, pronounced subpixel differences of the surface temperature are conceivable for a medium-resolution sensor such as MODIS, which has a footprint area on the order of one square kilometer. Over hilly, heterogeneous terrain in China, Liu et al. (2006) detected a much larger range of LST values in 90 m-ASTER thermal images compared to 1 km MODIS scenes acquired at the same time, which reflects the area-averaging of the thermal signal performed by the medium-resolution sensor MODIS. This subpixel variability is a challenge for monitoring algorithms of environmental parameters, such as evapotranspiration, based on remotely sensed LST (Kustas et al., 2003, McCabe and Wood, 2006). For a permafrost monitoring scheme, a pronounced subpixel variability of LST would add additional complexity, as the employed heat transfer models are highly non-linear due to the phase change of water.
For polygonal tundra in the Lena River Delta, Siberia, Langer et al. (2010) show that small-scale variations of the surface temperature between wet and dry areas are strongly reduced in temporal averages of at least a few days. Therefore, temporal LST averages derived from Terra/Aqua MODIS can indeed be assigned to both wet and dry areas within a reasonable margin of error at the investigated site. While this is encouraging for the use of MODIS LST in permafrost monitoring, the results cannot necessarily be generalized to other permafrost areas. Thus, it is desirable to evaluate the controlling factors for the formation of subpixel variability in a series of intercomparable studies at different sites, that span the immense range of land cover types and climatic conditions found in permafrost areas.
In this study, we present spatially resolved measurements of the summer surface temperature at a high-arctic continuous permafrost area on Svalbard, Norway, using a thermal imaging system similar to the one employed by (Langer et al., 2010). The observation period includes the entire summer season from beginning of July until mid of September. We illuminate various sources of spatial variability of the surface temperature at this permafrost site and discuss the implications for the interpretation of remotely sensed LST. In a second step, we evaluate the performance of the MODIS L2 product (Wan, 2008) for the study period and give an assessment of the suitability for permafrost monitoring.
Section snippets
Study site
The study is conducted on the Brøgger peninsula in NW Svalbard, about 1.5 km SW of the village of Ny-Ålesund (Fig. 1), where a large number of measurement campaigns and long-term monitoring programs to have created a remarkable data basis on climatological and atmospheric variables (e.g. Beine et al., 2001, Winther et al., 2002). The maritime influence of the nearby Kongsfjorden and North Atlantic Ocean leads to cool summers (average air temperature July + 5 °C) and relatively mild winters
Setup
The measurements of the surface temperature are performed with a high-resolution thermal imaging system (VARIOCAM HR™, Infratec GmbH, Dresden, Germany), which is based on an uncooled microbolometer array with a resolution of 384 × 288 pixel. The thermal imaging system is sensitive in the atmospheric window from 7.5 to 14 μm, where molecular absorption and emission of electromagnetic radiation are weak, and features a 12 mm wide angle lens. A more detailed description of the thermal imaging system
Results
With the combined information of the 2008 and 2009 study periods, the surface temperature can be investigated for almost the entire snow-free period. To present the results in the correct order of the annual cycle, we commence each section with the 2009 study period (3 July to 19 August) and conclude with 2008 study period (24 July to 15 September).
Spatial variability of surface temperature
While pronounced spatial differences in the surface temperature between dry and wet areas exist at some points in time, the results of this study show that they are greatly reduced if averages on timescales of one week are considered. On the one hand, this can be explained by the occurrence of cloudy periods with reduced spatial variability in most of the considered weekly intervals. Furthermore, while the daily temperature amplitude is much larger at the dry compared to the wet sites, the
Summary and conclusion
The summer surface temperature of an area of approximately 100 × 100 m of high-arctic tundra on Svalbard is monitored at high temporal resolution using a thermal imaging system. The study covers the entire season from the melting of the perennial snow pack until fall, when refreezing occurs. The monitored area features a pronounced spatial variability of the snow cover, the soil moisture conditions and the surface cover, so that an assessment on the long-term impact on the surface temperature can
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to M. Maturilli for providing us with the data of the BSRN station. We thank M. Schumacher, E. Larmanou, M. Sieber and A. le Tressoler from the AWIPEV base in Ny-Ålesund for the ongoing support of our permafrost research, which contributed greatly to the success of this work. We would like to thank four anonymous reviewers whose comments were very helpful in improving the manuscript. We gratefully acknowledge financial support by the Helmholtz Association through a grant (VH-NG
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