Management of electrical and electronic waste: A comparative evaluation of China and India
Introduction
Rapid advancements in science and technology revolutionized the fields of information and communication in the late 20th century, triggering dramatic changes in the industrial and socioeconomic landscape, that have continued into the early 21st century [1]. Consequently, new Information Communication and Technology (ICT) products and other e-products are continually being introduced into the market, and older products rapidly become obsolete [2]. The volume of e-waste is growing fast [3], [4]. A recent United Nations University (UNU) report estimated that 41.8 MT of e-waste is generated globally every year [5]. A major portion of this e-waste is illegally transferred from developed countries to developing Asian countries like India and China. However, both India and China have ratified the Basel convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, which restricted the illegal movement of hazardous waste substances.
The UNEP [6] has predicted that by 2020— the quantity of discarded computers will increase 5 times over current levels, and that of discarded mobile phones, 18 times over year 2007 levels, in India. The ISRI [7] has reported that, India generates approximately 2.7 million tons of e-waste annually, and that 70 per cent of the total e-waste comes from 10 Indian states [8]. And, while the global compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of e-waste is anticipated to be 23.5% over these thirteen years, the rates for India for the period of 2015–2019, and of China for the period of 2013–2018, are predicted to be 26% and 19.4%, respectively [9]. The e-waste mismanagement poses a great threat to both the environment and human health [10], [11], [12], [13]. Informal recycling of WEEE in India and China has already caused severe impacts on the natural environment and the health of unprotected workers in the waste management sector, as well as in areas immediately surrounding e-waste processing sector. Clearly, there is a critical need for sustainable e-waste recycling [14], [15], [16], and both the Indian and the Chinese governments have issued and enforced laws and regulations banning the illegal importation and informal recycling of WEEEs, and established collection, handling and treatment systems for environmentally sound recycling.
Although several studies on e-waste estimation, prediction and management have been carried out in China in the past few years, there have been comparatively limited studies on WEEE in India. Therefore, in this article, we preliminary evaluated the management of waste electronic and electrical equipment's (WEEEs) in China and India.
Section snippets
WEEE generation, composition and distribution
In India, there is no very clear/updated information on WEEE generation: how much is collected, treated and disposed of annually. Although some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have conducted studies, these have been limited to a few selected cities. For instance, an Associated Chambers of Commerce of India [30] report suggested that currently Indian e-waste is being generated at an annual growth rate of 25% and is expected to be about 1,500,000 metric tonnes (MT) for 2015. Similarly,
E-waste recycling practices in India and China
Many published literatures specify that, when EEE reaches its end of life—, almost all of it is collected & processed in the informal sector (small level family workshops) using primitive methods such as, manual dismantling, open burning and acid leaching [33], [93], [96]. The main goal of these small workshops is to extract and recover most of the valuable and reusable components from the e-waste [166]. In this informal sector scavenging is a major issue in e-waste processing, in developing
Relationship between e-waste recycling and renewable energy generation
The rapid population growth and generally the improvement of standard of living which contribute to increased energy, material and resources consumption. The energy demand of the human society is increasing while on the same time the energy resources are depleting. The energy generation from alternative sources such as waste has become of great concern for a sustainable future. However, the current treatment techniques are just waste management techniques with limiting benefits in terms of
Current WEEE rules and regulations in India and China
The rapid proliferation of e-waste is especially problematic in countries with high population densities [121], and either non-existent, ineffective or unenforced policies and regulations. The lack of such legislation in India and China has led to higher volumes of e-waste from both domestic and foreign sources; almost 80% of the e-waste in these countries is illegally imported from abroad [33].
While a number of regulations on WEEE management have been issued in China, such legislation has been
Life-cycle assessment covering forward logistics versus reverse logistics of electronic products
The life cycle analysis (LCA) is one of the most promising tools for understanding the complete flow of electronic products, and can also be used to determine their environmental impact at each point in their life cycle [134]. Hence, a systematic study of EEEs should be undertaken, using LCA, assuming closed-loop supply chains, as presented in Fig. 5. After the collection and dismantling of WEEEs, many of the components can be reused or sent to manufacturers for producing new EEEs, and many of
Analysis and discussion
Before a mature e-waste processing sector can be developed, however, it is necessary to analyze the present situation: the structural characteristics, material flows and management of this complex activity, much of which is currently performed by illegal or unauthorized enterprises [17], [18]. India and China, both will face rising environmental damage and health problems if e-waste recycling is left to the vagaries of the informal sector [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26]. Another
Conclusion and perspectives
The current e-waste situation in both China and India need rethinking, although China is in a better position in terms of many laws and regulations, and recycling rates. Chinese regulations have strengthened both the “polluter pays” and the 3R principles, whereas the implementation of EPR has so far been ineffective in India.
The environmentally sound management of WEEE (e-waste) is a critical problem in both countries, but the following actions could go a long way toward improving the
Acknowledgment
The work was financially supported by the National Key Technologies R&D Program (2014BAC03B04) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (71373141) We also acknowledged the editor and anonymous reviewers for the valuable comments and suggestions.
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