Aqueous electrophoretic deposition and corrosion protection of borate glass coatings on 316 L stainless steel for hard tissue fixation
Graphical abstract
Schematic illustration of borate glass preparation and its coating on SS steps by EPD process.
Introduction
Metallic alloys of titanium, cobalt, magnesium and 316 L stainless steel were used as orthopedic implants due to their high tensile strength, fatigue strength, and fracture toughness. Metallic biomaterials have likely been applied as supporting artificial joints, bone plates, screws and intramedullary nails. Additionally, they have been used for spinal fixations and spacers, external fixtures, pacemaker cases, as well as, they have been employed in artificial heart valves, wires, stents and dental implants [1].
Importantly, 316 L stainless steel alloys were used vastly for human body implants. Although such metal implants are impressively corrosion resistant in many environments, localized corrosion could be faced when subjected to human body fluids. Reducing metallic ions and electrons transport could lead to passive oxide films that hinder corrosion rate. Moreover, some corrosive attacks on stainless steel may occur when subjected to body fluid, whereas, it contains various kinds of corrosive constituents, such as water, dissolved oxygen and large amounts of chloride ions (Cl−) beside other electrolytes like bicarbonate and small amounts of potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, sulphate and amino acids, proteins, and plasma. Expectedly, the combined presence of these components results in initiation of some degree of corrosion of metal implants throughout the long period of implantation. As a result, the corrosion products can be very harmful to the human body [2], [3], [4]. The stainless steel common corrosion products, such as nickel, cobalt, chrome and their compounds are known as an allergens [5]. Beyond individual concentrations, a disturbance of the proper behavior of the osteoblast-like bone marrow cells could be expected [5]. Consequently, it is essential to develop techniques to minimize the corrosion products of such implants within the aggressive body environment. Coating metallic implants with bioactive layer has been proposed as a promising approach to overcome such problem. In this context, bioactive glass [6], [7], [8], glass-ceramics [9], [10], [11] free of cracks and phosphate ceramic family as hydroxyapatite have been widely developed as bioactive coatings for metal implants [12], [13], [14] due to their controlled surface reactivity beside bone bonding ability.
Recently, borate glasses have attracted biomedical scientists attention due to their low chemical durability as fast conversion to HA compared to the widely applied silicate 45S5 bioactive glass [15], [16], [17]. Boron among other elements such as nickel, cobalt, chrome and their compounds play the essential roles in many life processes including embryogenesis. The active anti-inflammatory influence of boron containing compounds with little side effects was evidenced by several researchers [18], [19]. Positive effects in bone, brain, inflammation, and hormone function were demonstrated in a previous study [20]. The anti-inflammatory functions of boron with minimum side effects were attributed to the suppression of serine proteases that are released by inflammation-activated white blood cells. Reduced reactive oxygen species, generated during neutrophil's respiratory burst along with T-cell activity suppression and antibody concentrations are additionally effective [15], [21]. Consequently, the boron delivery upon biodegradation of borate glass is of particular interest for biomedical applications [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27].
However, research on borate bioactive glass is rather limited [8] while borosilicate glass was reported as coating materials [11]. Reports concerned with the surface of the borate-based glass coatings on load bearing metallic implants are seldom found despite its promising bioactivity.
Various coatings techniques including plasma spraying [10], [28], [29], sol–gel [30], [31], [32], [33], electrophoretic deposition [34], [35], [36], [37], electrochemical deposition, biomimetic process [38], [39], [40], [41], [42] and sputter coating [43], were reported. The bioactive material coatings are considered potential methods for improving the orthopedic devices performance to reduce corrosion and achieve better biocompatibility [4]. Mostly implantable devices are required to exhibit stable long-term performance at the host interface with minimum foreign body reaction [44].
Electrophoretic deposition (EPD) gained considerable attention among biomaterials coating techniques specifically bioactive ones and biomedical nanostructures. Its advantages include short processing time, simple apparatus setup, and few restrictions on substrate shape, requiring no binder burnout as the green surfaces contain negligible organics. It is usually carried out in the two-electrode cell. The mechanism involves two steps of electrophoresis and deposition. Initially, an electric field is applied between two electrodes. The charged particles being suspended in a suitable liquid move towards the oppositely charged electrode constituting the electrophoresis step. The particles accumulation at the deposition electrode creates a relatively compact and homogeneous film and is referred to as the deposition step. Essentially, a stable suspension containing the charged particles is free to move when an electric field is applied in a suitable electrolyte. Dispersion media of organic solvents are preferably used more than water in EPD to avoid the problems of electrolysis and gas evolution. Solutions of high oxidation–reduction potentials like benzene or ketenes could also be used [45]. However, water is preferable avoiding organic media being costly and for environmental impact [45]. Further, a heat-treatment step is essential to eliminate porosity and enhance the deposits density.
The present work aimed to improve the biocompatibility and in turn functionality of 316 L SS alloy through coating its surface with bioactive borate glass layer using EPD technique. Furthermore, the study mainly aimed to perform coating process in the cost-effective and environmental impact aqueous solution, rather than organic solvents. For these purposes, different coating conditions were studied to determine the optimum coating conditions.
Section snippets
Materials
The bioactive borate glass powder in B2O3CaONa2O-MgO system, with the composition shown in Table 1, was prepared by melting process. Reagents grade of H3BO3, CaCO3, and Na2CO3 and MgO were mixed thoroughly and further melted in a platinum crucible at 1050 °C for two h using the electrical furnace. The melted glass was quenched in water to prevent crystallization and achieve the glass frit. Further, it was dried at room temperature and ground using an electrical porcelain ball mill for 2.5 h
Characterization
The particle size of the glass powder was measured by particle size analyzer and SEM image. On the other hand, the density of bulk glass with irregular shape was measured by the Archimedes method, using distilled water as a liquid. The density (D) was calculated by the equation:
Where Wair is the weight of the sample in the air, W liquid is the weight of the sample in the liquid and L is the density of the immersion liquid (equal 1 for water).
Fourier transform
Conclusions
The developed borate bioactive glass was successfully prepared and coated onto 316 L SS substrates by the electrophoretic deposition technique in aqueous solution, (green electrolyte), which is a cheap and environmentally desirable solution. The EPD parameters, namely, suspension particle concentrations, applied voltage, pH, and deposition time which control the deposition yield were thoroughly investigated. The optimum parameters were attained at 4 wt% glass level and a potential of 35 V at pH 7
Acknowledgements
The financial support of the present work within National Research Centre, Biomaterials group, Cairo, Egypt is appreciated. The authors acknowledge and thank National Research Centre, Central Labs, Cairo, Egypt for providing measurement facilities applied in this research.
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