Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching: A comparison of four measures

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2005.01.007Get rights and content

Abstract

Some of the most powerful influences on the development of teacher efficacy are mastery experiences during student teaching and the induction year. Bandura's theory of self-efficacy suggests that efficacy may be most malleable early in learning, thus the first years of teaching could be critical to the long-term development of teacher efficacy. Yet few longitudinal studies exist that track efficacy across these early years. This study reports changes in teacher efficacy from entry into a teacher preparation program through the induction year. Multiple quantitative assessments of efficacy were used including Gibson and Dembo's Teacher Efficacy Scale, Bandura's assessment of Instructional Efficacy, and an instrument designed to reflect the specific context and goals of the preparation program studied. Results indicated significant increases in efficacy during student teaching, but significant declines during the first year of teaching. Changes in efficacy during the first year of teaching were related to the level of support received.

Introduction

The role of self-efficacy in teaching and learning continues to interest researchers and practitioners alike. Teachers’ sense of efficacy—teachers’ judgments about their abilities to promote students’ learning—was identified almost 25 years ago as one of the few teacher characteristics related to student achievement in a study by the RAND corporation (Armor et al., 1976). Because teachers’ sense of efficacy appears to be a belief that affects teaching and learning, teacher educators, administrators, and policy makers are interested in the origins, supports, and enemies of efficacy.

Some of the most powerful influences on the development of teachers’ sense of efficacy are experiences during student teaching and the induction year (Mulholland & Wallace, 2001). Bandura's theory of self-efficacy suggests that efficacy may be most malleable early in learning, thus the first years of teaching could be critical to the long-term development of teacher efficacy. Yet few longitudinal studies exist that track efficacy across these early years. One goal of this study was to examine changes in teachers’ efficacy judgments from entry into a preparation program through the first year of teaching. In order to compare the results revealed by different measures, we used multiple quantitative assessments of self-efficacy for teaching, including Gibson and Dembo's Teacher Efficacy Scale, Bandura's Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale, and an instrument designed to reflect the specific context and goals of the preparation program studied.

Even though the early years of teaching likely are a critical time for developing efficacy beliefs, little is known about the kinds of context variables that affect efficacy. Social cognitive theory (Bandura (1986), Bandura (1997)) proposes that behavior, cognitive and other personal factors, and the environment interact to influence each other through the process of reciprocal determinism. The model of teacher efficacy presented by Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, and Hoy (1998) suggests that teachers make efficacy judgments, in part, by assessing the resources and constraints in specific teaching contexts. Resources in the form of support and feedback from colleagues, administrators, and parents could serve as social persuasion (Bandura, 1997). In addition the teaching resources available and the quality of the facilities could all impact teachers’ assessments about their ability to accomplish the tasks of teaching. However, research has not examined how such support is related to novice teachers’ developing efficacy judgments. Another goal of this study was to examine correlates of efficacy change during the first year of teaching.

Section snippets

Theoretical framework

Over a quarter century ago, Albert Bandura introduced the concept of self-efficacy or “beliefs in one's capacity to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3). Since that time, research in many arenas has demonstrated the power of efficacy perceptions in human learning, performance, and motivation. For example, efficacy beliefs are related to smoking cessation, adherence to exercise and diet programs, performance in sports, political

The measurement of teacher efficacy

The construct of teacher efficacy has been conceptualized in a number of ways, but the most pervasive is derived from two Rand Corporation evaluations of innovative educational programs funded by the Federal Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Armor et al., 1976; Berman, McLaughlin, Bass, Pauly, & Zellman, 1977). In these studies, teachers’ level of efficacy was determined by computing a total score for their responses to two 5-point Likert scale items: (a) “When it comes right down to it,

Method

The study was a longitudinal investigation that assessed the efficacy of prospective and novice teachers at the beginning of their preparation program, at the end of student teaching, and after their first year of employment as a teacher. All the members of the 1997–1998 elementary education Master's of Education cohort at a major midwestern public university participated in the study.

Results

Factor analyses of the Gibson and Dembo 10-item scale yielded the two factors of GTE and PTE found in previous research. Thus two scales were created for these measures by calculating the means of the five items for each scale. Items were coded such that the higher the score (closer to 6), the higher the efficacy. Scores for Bandura's instrument were based on the mean of all 30 items (the small sample size made factor analysis of this instrument unadvisable). Items were coded such that the

Discussion

In general, three of the four measures of efficacy revealed similar patterns and changes over time. All scales were reliable, even with our small sample. The picture that emerged from these findings is that efficacy, however assessed, rose during teacher preparation and student teaching, but fell with actual experience as a teacher.

The only exception to this pattern came with the program specific OSU measure that asked teachers to assess their teaching activities and skills. Here confidence

References (51)

  • Armor, D., Conroy-Oseguera, P., Cox, M., King, N., McDonnell, L., Pascal, A. Pauly, E., & Zellman, G. (1976). Analysis...
  • P.T. Ashton et al.

    Making a difference: teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achievement

    (1986)
  • A. Bandura

    Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change

    Psychological Review

    (1977)
  • A. Bandura

    Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory

    (1986)
  • A. Bandura

    Self-efficacy: the exercise of control

    (1997)
  • Berman, P., McLaughlin, M., Bass, G., Pauly, E., & Zellman, G. (1977). Federal Programs supporting educational change....
  • T. Bouffard-Bouchard et al.

    Influence of self-efficacy on self-regulation and performance among junior and senior high-school age students

    International Journal of Behavior Development

    (1991)
  • Burley, W. W., Hall, B. W., Villeme, M. G., & Brockmeier, L. L. (1991). A path analysis of the mediating role of...
  • T. Coladarci

    Teachers’ sense of efficacy and commitment to teaching

    Journal of Experimental Education

    (1992)
  • E. Corcoran

    Transition shock: the beginning teacher's paradox

    Journal of Teacher Education

    (1981)
  • J.B. Cousins et al.

    Predictors of educators’ valuing of systemic inquiry in schools

    Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation

    (2000)
  • I.A. Friedman

    Burnout in teachers: shattered dreams of impeccable professional performance

    In Session: Psychotherapy in Practice

    (2000)
  • S. Gibson et al.

    Teacher efficacy: a construct validation

    Journal of Educational Psychology

    (1984)
  • R.D. Goddard et al.

    Collective teacher efficacy: its meaning, measure, and effect on student achievement

    American Education Research Journal

    (2000)
  • J. Gorrell et al.

    A study of self-efficacy beliefs among pre-service teachers in Korea

    Journal of Research and Development in Education

    (1995)
  • Cited by (0)

    View full text